Philosophers' ships

Philosophers' ships, also known individually as philosopher's steamboat is a term used for steamships which transported intellectuals expelled from Soviet Russia in 1922.

The main load was handled by two German ships, the Oberbürgermeister Haken and the Preussen, which transported more than 160 expelled Russian intellectuals and their families in September and November 1922 from Petrograd (modern-day Saint Petersburg) to the seaport of Stettin in Germany (modern-day Szczecin in Poland). Three detention lists included 228 people, 32 of them students.

Later in 1922 other intellectuals were transported by train to Riga in Latvia or by ship from Odessa to Istanbul.

Expelled included:

Vladimir Abrikosov .
Yuly Aikhenvald .
Nikolai Berdyaev .
Boris Brutskus .
Sergei Bulgakov .
Semyon Frank .
Ivan Ilyin
Abram Saulovich Kagan (university lecturer/publisher; father of architect Anatol Kagan)
Lev Karsavin (the brother of ballerina Tamara Karsavina; arrested again in 1940 and deported to a gulag in Komi, where he died in 1952)
Alexander Kiesewetter .
Ivan Lapshin .
Nikolai Lossky .
Mikhail Osorgin
Pitirim Sorokin (train)
Fyodor Stepun .

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophers%27_ships

●τ 1923

1918-1923 Collapse of German Empire ..

1923-1-11: French Occupation of the Ruhr ..

1923-9-26 Stresemann, Ruhr ..

1923-10-15 Rentenmark ..

1923-11-8 Beer Hall Putsch 1923-11-9 ..

1923-11-8 Beer Hall Putsch 1923-11-9

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1923-11-8: Beer Hall Putsch in Munich; Hitler & Ludendorff - HiPo > .

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The Beer Hall Putsch was conceived at a time when the Weimar Republic was politically, socially and economically crippled. Hyperinflation had reached its worst level since the occupation of the Ruhr, and many ‘patriotic associations’ sought to emulate Mussolini’s successful March on Rome that had taken place the previous year in order to wrest control away from the seemingly useless Weimar government.

Having led a group of approximately 600 brown-shirted Nazi stormtroopers from their meeting point in the Bürgerbräukeller, Hitler burst into a meeting at which Gustav von Kahr, the state commissioner, was speaking. Threatening him at gunpoint, Hitler demanded support for the putsch.

Having made a speech that was met with uproarious approval from the 3,000 members of the audience, Hitler then called on Ludendorff to further press Kahr to support the coup. The state commissioner eventually agreed, and he and his fellow politicians were allowed to leave. They immediately alerted the police and army who began to move against the putsch.

Sixteen Nazis and four policemen were killed in a brief firefight the next day. Hitler was injured and escaped capture, but was arrested two days later and put on trial for high treason. He got revenge on Kahr eleven years later when he ordered his murder as part of the Night of the Long Knives.

The Beer Hall Putsch, also known as the Munich Putsch, Hitlerputsch, Hitler-Ludendorff-Putsch, Bürgerbräu-Putsch or Marsch auf die Feldherrnhalle ("March on the Field Marshals' Hall"), was a failed coup d'état by the Nazi Party (NSDAP) leader Adolf Hitler—along with Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff and other Kampfbund leaders—to seize power in Munich, Bavaria, which took place on 8–9 November 1923. Approximately two thousand Nazis were marching to the Feldherrnhalle, in the city centre, when they were confronted by a police cordon, which resulted in the deaths of 16 Nazi party members and four police officers.

Hitler, who was wounded during the clash, escaped immediate arrest and was spirited off to safety in the countryside. After two days, he was arrested and charged with treason.

The putsch brought Hitler to the attention of the German nation and generated front-page headlines in newspapers around the world. His arrest was followed by a 24-day trial, which was widely publicised and gave him a platform to express his nationalist sentiments to the nation. Hitler was found guilty of treason and sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison, where he dictated Mein Kampf to his fellow prisoners Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess. On 20 December 1924, having served only nine months, Hitler was released. Once released, Hitler redirected his focus towards obtaining power through legal means rather than revolution or force, and accordingly changed his tactics, further developing Nazi propaganda.

1923-10-15 Rentenmark

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15th October 1923: Rentenmark, Weimar Germany, hyperinflation crisis - HiPo > .

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23-8-21 A Democracy Without Democrats: Weimar Republic Explained - Used > .

The French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr that began on 11 January 1923 had been met with a policy of passive resistance by the German government. Although this succeeded in frustrating the occupying powers who sought to extract reparations payments in the form of natural resources, it also brought the economy in the Ruhr to a shuddering halt.

As the strike had been called for by the government, the strikers and their families were eligible to receive income support. However, falling tax revenues due to the lack of trade meant that the government struggled to keep up with payments. In response they began printing money despite there being no product to base it on. The Papiermark went into freefall as hyperinflation took hold, and the cabinet resigned in favour of a new one formed under Gustav Stresemann.

Stresemann’s finance minister, Hans Luther, introduced the Rentenmark to replace the crisis-hit Papiermark in a plan devised jointly with Hjalmar Schacht at the Reichsbank. Schacht later went on to be the Minister of Economics in the early years of Hitler’s rule.

The new currency was backed by land that was used by businesses and agriculture, and was introduced at the rate of one Rentenmark to one trillion Papiermarks. With the currency now tied to something with physical value, hyperinflation was stopped in its tracks. The more commonly known Reichsmark was introduced the following year at the same value.

1923-9-26 Stresemann, Ruhr

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26th September 1923: Gustav Stresemann ends passive resistance in the Ruhr - HiPo > .

1923: Hyperinflation | Weimar Germany - long, long > .

23-8-21 A Democracy Without Democrats: Weimar Republic Explained - Used > .

The 1921 London Schedule of Payments had set out both the reparations amount and the timetable over which Germany was expected to pay for its defeat in the First World War. However, from the very start of the payments Germany missed some its targets. Failure to provide the full quota of coal and timber in December 1922, provided the excuse for France and Belgium to occupy the Ruhr on 11 January 1923.

Occupation was met with passive resistance and the striking workers were paid with money printed by the government. This contributed to the rampant hyperinflation that had begun to cripple the economy from before the occupation began. Gustav Stresemann was aware that the situation was unsustainable and, despite having been Chancellor for only six weeks, called off passive resistance and started to pay reparations again.

By ending the strikes and restarting reparations payments, Stresemann was able to slow down the economic crisis that was enveloping the country and show that he accepted the international realities of the new era. This marked the start of Germany’s international rehabilitation, although within Germany it was met with opposition from both Left and Right extremists. For that reason, Stresemann asked President Ebert to announce a state of emergency under Article 48 of the constitution on the same day.

Despite the anger from some Germans, Stresemann’s actions laid the foundation for the economic recovery that Germany experienced up until the onset of the Great Depression.