● 20th century τ ..
Monday, November 30, 2015
● 19th century
Unification - Italy & Germany ..
1815-2-26 Bonaparte Escapes ..1834-8-1 Abolition of Slavery, UK ..1865-4-12 Lincoln Assassinated ..1870-1 Franco-Prussian War ..
1871-1-18 Wilhelm I of Prussia 1st German Emperor ..1898-4-25 Spanish–American War
With growing concerns about the safety of U.S. interests in Cuba, the battleship USS Maine was sent from Key West, Florida to Havana harbor at the end of January 1898. Three weeks later, on 15 February, a fierce explosion on board the ship killed 260 members of the crew. An investigation was immediately launched, but in the meantime the sensationalist New York Journal and New York World newspapers reported that the ship had been sunk by Spain.
Although President McKinley initially opposed going to war, the wider public demanded action. Eventually he requested permission from Congress to send troops to Cuba in an attempt to end the civil war. Passed by a vote of 311 to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate, the Joint Resolution for Cuban independence was followed by an ultimatum to Spain to leave Cuba or else face American military intervention.
In response to the ultimatum Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States and, on 21 April, declared war. A U.S. blockade of Cuba began the same day. Congress didn’t formally declare war until 25 April, although the declaration recognized that a state of war had existed since Spain’s declaration four days earlier.
1894-12-22 Dreyfus Found Guilty
22-7-26 France's Hx & Geostrategic Choices in Central Europe - gtbt > .
Alfred Dreyfus (9 October 1859 – 12 July 1935) was a French artillery officer of Jewish ancestry whose trial and conviction in 1894 on charges of treason became one of the most controversial and polarizing political dramas in modern French history. The incident has gone down in history as the Dreyfus Affair, the reverberations from which were felt throughout Europe. It ultimately ended with Dreyfus's complete exoneration.
Alfred Dreyfus (9 October 1859 – 12 July 1935) was a French artillery officer of Jewish ancestry whose trial and conviction in 1894 on charges of treason became one of the most controversial and polarizing political dramas in modern French history. The incident has gone down in history as the Dreyfus Affair, the reverberations from which were felt throughout Europe. It ultimately ended with Dreyfus's complete exoneration.
In 1894, the French Army's counter-intelligence section, led by Lieutenant Colonel Jean Sandherr, became aware that information regarding new artillery parts was being passed to the Germans by a highly placed spy, most likely on the General Staff. Suspicion quickly fell upon Dreyfus, who was arrested for treason on 15 October 1894.
On December 22nd 1894 Alfred Dreyfus, a French-Jewish artillery officer was found guilty of treason in one of history's largest miscarriages of justice. The origin of the scandal lay in a ripped-up letter in wastepaper basket at the German Embassy in Paris. Having been handed by the cleaner who found it to French counter-espionage, it was found to contain French military secrets and was determined to have been leaked by someone within the General Staff.
Alfred Dreyfus, who had been born into a Jewish family in the Alsace region before its annexation by Germany, had been promoted to the rank of captain by 1889. He joined the General Staff in 1893 but, following the discovery of the letter known as the bordereau, was arrested after his handwriting was compared to that in the letter.
Dreyfus’ trial began on 19 December, but was preceded by weeks of anti-Semitic articles in theright-wing wrong-wing press. The trial itself was conducted in a closed court, where the seven judges unanimously found him guilty of treason after being handed a secret dossier during their deliberations. They declared their verdict on 22 December, and sentenced him to life imprisonment preceded by military degradation. This involved the insignia being torn from his uniform and his sword broken, before being paraded in front of a crowd stirred up by the press shouting, “Death to Judas, death to the Jew.”
Dreyfus was transported to Devil's Island in French Guiana, but in France new evidence began to emerge that another officer was the real traitor. With support from the Dreyfusards including the novelist Emile Zola, a retrial in 1899 reduced the sentence while the President of the Republic granted a pardon. However, it wasn’t until 1906 that Dreyfus was finally exonerated and readmitted to the army.
Alfred Dreyfus, who had been born into a Jewish family in the Alsace region before its annexation by Germany, had been promoted to the rank of captain by 1889. He joined the General Staff in 1893 but, following the discovery of the letter known as the bordereau, was arrested after his handwriting was compared to that in the letter.
Dreyfus’ trial began on 19 December, but was preceded by weeks of anti-Semitic articles in the
Dreyfus was transported to Devil's Island in French Guiana, but in France new evidence began to emerge that another officer was the real traitor. With support from the Dreyfusards including the novelist Emile Zola, a retrial in 1899 reduced the sentence while the President of the Republic granted a pardon. However, it wasn’t until 1906 that Dreyfus was finally exonerated and readmitted to the army.
1894-7-25 First Sino-Japanese War 1895-4-17
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First Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 - House > .How Europe Colonized Asia - Pacific War 1 - K&G > .
Pacific War - week by week - K&G >> .
0:00 Introduction
0:46 Donghak Peasant Rebellion
5:18 First Sino-Japanese War
8:15 Beiyang and Weihaiwei
11:05 Treaty of Shimonoseki
The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between the Qing dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan primarily over influence in Joseon Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the port of Weihaiwei, the Qing government sued for peace in February 1895.
The war demonstrated the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernize its military and fend off threats to its sovereignty, especially when compared with Japan's successful Meiji Restoration. For the first time, regional dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; the prestige of the Qing dynasty, along with the classical tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The humiliating loss of Korea as a tributary state sparked an unprecedented public outcry. Within China, the defeat was a catalyst for a series of political upheavals led by Sun Yat-sen and Kang Youwei, culminating in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution.
The war is commonly known in China as the War of Jiawu, referring to the year (1894) as named under the traditional sexagenary system of years. In Japan, it is called the Japan–Qing War. In Korea, where much of the war took place, it is called the Qing–Japan War
0:46 Donghak Peasant Rebellion
5:18 First Sino-Japanese War
8:15 Beiyang and Weihaiwei
11:05 Treaty of Shimonoseki
The war demonstrated the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernize its military and fend off threats to its sovereignty, especially when compared with Japan's successful Meiji Restoration. For the first time, regional dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; the prestige of the Qing dynasty, along with the classical tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The humiliating loss of Korea as a tributary state sparked an unprecedented public outcry. Within China, the defeat was a catalyst for a series of political upheavals led by Sun Yat-sen and Kang Youwei, culminating in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution.
The war is commonly known in China as the War of Jiawu, referring to the year (1894) as named under the traditional sexagenary system of years. In Japan, it is called the Japan–Qing War. In Korea, where much of the war took place, it is called the Qing–Japan War
1890-3-20 Bismarck Resigns
20th March 1890: Kaiser Wilhelm II - Otto von Bismarck’s resignation - HiPo > .
Bismarck's resignation had been demanded by the Kaiser a few days earlier and was submitted on the 18th. Bismarck’s exit from office two days later ended his decades-long domination of German and European politics, and ushered in the new age of Weltpolitik.
As Minister President and Foreign Minister of Prussia, Bismarck had overseen the unification of Germany in 1871. He then continued as Chancellor of Germany for almost two decades, throughout which Germany dominated European politics, and controlled the balance of power to ensure peace.
However the death of Kaiser Wilhelm I, which was quickly and unexpectedly followed by his son Frederick III, led to the young and relatively inexperienced Wilhelm taking the throne. Rather than allow his Chancellor to govern as he had done for the previous few decades, Wilhelm preferred to rule as well as reign which led to confrontations between the two men in the tussle for control.
The situation came to a head in early 1890, when they disagreed over social policy. While Bismarck was keen to introduce permanent anti-socialist laws, Wilhelm preferred to be more moderate. The stark difference in their positions became most obvious when Bismarck said he sought a violent confrontation in order to suppress the socialists. Wilhelm later took offence at Bismarck negotiating a new political alliance without his knowledge.
With their relationship in tatters, Wilhelm insisted that the 75 year old Bismarck submit his resignation. He was succeeded by Leo von Caprivi, and dedicated the rest of his life to writing his memoirs.
As Minister President and Foreign Minister of Prussia, Bismarck had overseen the unification of Germany in 1871. He then continued as Chancellor of Germany for almost two decades, throughout which Germany dominated European politics, and controlled the balance of power to ensure peace.
However the death of Kaiser Wilhelm I, which was quickly and unexpectedly followed by his son Frederick III, led to the young and relatively inexperienced Wilhelm taking the throne. Rather than allow his Chancellor to govern as he had done for the previous few decades, Wilhelm preferred to rule as well as reign which led to confrontations between the two men in the tussle for control.
The situation came to a head in early 1890, when they disagreed over social policy. While Bismarck was keen to introduce permanent anti-socialist laws, Wilhelm preferred to be more moderate. The stark difference in their positions became most obvious when Bismarck said he sought a violent confrontation in order to suppress the socialists. Wilhelm later took offence at Bismarck negotiating a new political alliance without his knowledge.
With their relationship in tatters, Wilhelm insisted that the 75 year old Bismarck submit his resignation. He was succeeded by Leo von Caprivi, and dedicated the rest of his life to writing his memoirs.
Sunday, November 29, 2015
1887-6-18 Germany, Russia sign Reinsurance Treaty
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Territorial Evolution Of HUNGARY - Knowledge > .
Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary had entered into a second Three Emperors’ Alliance in 1881. Like the one before it, the agreement was designed by the German Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, to isolate France from potential allies and avoid rivalry between his two neighbours over territory in the Balkans.
Continuing tensions between Austria-Hungary and Russia over this region led to the agreement’s collapse in 1887 and forced Bismarck to find another way to maintain French diplomatic isolation.
Germany had already formed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, so the Reinsurance Treaty was created to ensure Russia continued to side with Germany. In return Germany agreed to a Russian sphere of influence in Bulgaria and the Black Sea.
By the time the treaty came up for renewal in 1890, Wilhelm II had become Kaiser of Germany. He insisted that Bismarck resign the Chancellorship in March that year, and argued that his personal relationship with Tsar Alexander III would be enough to avoid any future problems with Russia. Bismarck’s successor Leo von Caprivi was also unwilling to seek a renewal of the Reinsurance Treaty, meaning that it lapsed.
Without the treaty to tie St Petersburg to Berlin, the Russian government began to forge closer relations with France. France’s improving diplomatic situation was formalised in the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892. This opened up Germany to the possibility of a war on two fronts, making the failure of the Reinsurance Treaty a contributing factor to the outbreak of the First World War.
Continuing tensions between Austria-Hungary and Russia over this region led to the agreement’s collapse in 1887 and forced Bismarck to find another way to maintain French diplomatic isolation.
Germany had already formed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, so the Reinsurance Treaty was created to ensure Russia continued to side with Germany. In return Germany agreed to a Russian sphere of influence in Bulgaria and the Black Sea.
By the time the treaty came up for renewal in 1890, Wilhelm II had become Kaiser of Germany. He insisted that Bismarck resign the Chancellorship in March that year, and argued that his personal relationship with Tsar Alexander III would be enough to avoid any future problems with Russia. Bismarck’s successor Leo von Caprivi was also unwilling to seek a renewal of the Reinsurance Treaty, meaning that it lapsed.
Without the treaty to tie St Petersburg to Berlin, the Russian government began to forge closer relations with France. France’s improving diplomatic situation was formalised in the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892. This opened up Germany to the possibility of a war on two fronts, making the failure of the Reinsurance Treaty a contributing factor to the outbreak of the First World War.
1882-5-20 Triple Alliance
Territorial Evolution Of HUNGARY - Knowledge > .
Germany and Austria-Hungary had formed the defensive Dual Alliance in 1879 in which both countries agreed to assist each other if they were attacked by Russia and promised benevolent neutrality to the other in case of war with another nation.
Two years later Italy, which had North African imperial ambitions, was frustrated by France’s seizure of Tunisia. Wishing to secure a foreign alliance in case of future aggression from France, Italy consequently turned to Germany and Austria-Hungary, expanding their established relationship to form the Triple Alliance in 1882.
The alliance provided Italy with German and Austro-Hungarian assistance in case France chose to attack, in return for which Italy would assist Germany if they were attacked. Meanwhile Austria-Hungary benefited from a guarantee that Italy would remain neutral in case of a war with Russia, removing the risk of a war on two fronts and providing some security amidst the rising tensions in the Balkans.
The alliance was renewed in 1887, 1907 and 1912. Meanwhile, in October 1883, Romania had secretly joined the Triple Alliance. This move was so secret that only King Carol I and a few senior politicians even knew.
However, similar to Italy’s involvement in the agreement, this did not result in Romania's joining the Central Powers when war broke out in 1914. Having based their decision on the fact that the first country to take offensive action was Austria-Hungary when it attacked Serbia, both Italy and Romania initially opted for neutrality. They claimed that, since the Triple Alliance was defensive, they were not duty bound to support the aggressor.
Two years later Italy, which had North African imperial ambitions, was frustrated by France’s seizure of Tunisia. Wishing to secure a foreign alliance in case of future aggression from France, Italy consequently turned to Germany and Austria-Hungary, expanding their established relationship to form the Triple Alliance in 1882.
The alliance provided Italy with German and Austro-Hungarian assistance in case France chose to attack, in return for which Italy would assist Germany if they were attacked. Meanwhile Austria-Hungary benefited from a guarantee that Italy would remain neutral in case of a war with Russia, removing the risk of a war on two fronts and providing some security amidst the rising tensions in the Balkans.
The alliance was renewed in 1887, 1907 and 1912. Meanwhile, in October 1883, Romania had secretly joined the Triple Alliance. This move was so secret that only King Carol I and a few senior politicians even knew.
However, similar to Italy’s involvement in the agreement, this did not result in Romania's joining the Central Powers when war broke out in 1914. Having based their decision on the fact that the first country to take offensive action was Austria-Hungary when it attacked Serbia, both Italy and Romania initially opted for neutrality. They claimed that, since the Triple Alliance was defensive, they were not duty bound to support the aggressor.
Saturday, November 28, 2015
1871-1-18 Wilhelm I of Prussia 1st German Emperor
.18th January 1871: Wilhelm I of Prussia proclaimed the first German Emperor - HiPo > .
William I or Wilhelm I (Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig; 22 March 1797 – 9 March 1888) was King of Prussia from 2 January 1861 and German Emperor from 18 January 1871 until his death in 1888. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he was the first head of state of a united Germany. He was de facto head of state of Prussia from 1858, when he became regent for his brother Frederick William IV, and he became king when his brother died three years later.
Under the leadership of William and his minister president Otto von Bismarck, Prussia achieved the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire. Despite his long support of Bismarck as Minister President, William held strong reservations about some of Bismarck's more reactionary policies, including his anti-Catholicism and tough handling of subordinates. In contrast to the domineering Bismarck, William was described as polite, gentlemanly and, while staunchly conservative, more open to certain classical liberal ideas than his grandson Wilhelm II, during whose reign he was known as Wilhelm the Great (der Große).
On 18 January 1871 Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed the first German Emperor.
Wilhelm had been made the President of the North German Confederation on its formation in 1867, and during the Franco-Prussian War took a leading role in the command of the combined German forces. Amidst the patriotic fervour that followed the successful German advance, in November 1870 the remaining states south of the river Main joined the North German Confederation.
On 10 December the Reichstag of the Confederation renamed itself the German Empire. Wilhelm was formally declared the German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles on 18 January. The title was accepted grudgingly by Wilhelm who would have preferred ‘Emperor of Germany’ rather than ‘German Emperor’, but Bismarck warned that this would be dangerous as it suggested he had a claim to other Germanic lands such as Austria, Luxembourg and Switzerland. He also refused to be titled ‘Emperor of the Germans’, since this would have suggested he ruled with permission from the German people rather than by ‘the grace of God’. As a believer in divine right, this suggestion was unacceptable to him.
Three months later, on 14 April, the Reichstag adopted the German Constitution. This stated that the King of Prussia would be the permanent President of the confederation of states that formed the Empire. Therefore, the role of Emperor was tied to the Prussian crown.
The creation of the federal Empire made Wilhelm the head of state and president of the federated monarchies that made up the 27 constituent territories.
Wilhelm had been made the President of the North German Confederation on its formation in 1867, and during the Franco-Prussian War took a leading role in the command of the combined German forces. Amidst the patriotic fervour that followed the successful German advance, in November 1870 the remaining states south of the river Main joined the North German Confederation.
On 10 December the Reichstag of the Confederation renamed itself the German Empire. Wilhelm was formally declared the German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles on 18 January. The title was accepted grudgingly by Wilhelm who would have preferred ‘Emperor of Germany’ rather than ‘German Emperor’, but Bismarck warned that this would be dangerous as it suggested he had a claim to other Germanic lands such as Austria, Luxembourg and Switzerland. He also refused to be titled ‘Emperor of the Germans’, since this would have suggested he ruled with permission from the German people rather than by ‘the grace of God’. As a believer in divine right, this suggestion was unacceptable to him.
Three months later, on 14 April, the Reichstag adopted the German Constitution. This stated that the King of Prussia would be the permanent President of the confederation of states that formed the Empire. Therefore, the role of Emperor was tied to the Prussian crown.
The creation of the federal Empire made Wilhelm the head of state and president of the federated monarchies that made up the 27 constituent territories.
Under the leadership of William and his minister president Otto von Bismarck, Prussia achieved the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire. Despite his long support of Bismarck as Minister President, William held strong reservations about some of Bismarck's more reactionary policies, including his anti-Catholicism and tough handling of subordinates. In contrast to the domineering Bismarck, William was described as polite, gentlemanly and, while staunchly conservative, more open to certain classical liberal ideas than his grandson Wilhelm II, during whose reign he was known as Wilhelm the Great (der Große).
1871 Alsace-Lorraine annexed
Mountain Combat In The Vosges - The Battle For Alsace-Lorraine > .
More Info About Alsace-Lorraine in WW1 > .
More Info About Alsace-Lorraine in WW1 > .
The territory encompassed 93% of Alsace and 26% of Lorraine, while the rest of these regions remained part of France. For historical reasons, specific legal dispositions are still applied in the territory in the form of a "local law". In relation to its special legal status, since its reversion to France following World War I, the territory has been referred to administratively as Alsace-Moselle.
France long sought to attain and preserve its "natural boundaries", which were the Pyrenees to the southwest, the Alpsto the southeast, and the Rhine River to the northeast. These strategic claims led to the annexation of territories located west of the Rhine river in the Holy Roman Empire. What is now known as Alsace was progressively conquered by Louis XIV in the 17th century, while Lorraine was incorporated in the 18th century under Louis XV.
German nationalism, which resurfaced following the French occupation of Germany under Napoleon, sought to unify all the German-speaking populations of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation into a single nation-state. As various German dialects were spoken by most of the population of Alsace and Moselle (northern Lorraine), these regions were viewed by German nationalists to be rightfully part of hoped-for united Germany in the future.
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WW1:
In French foreign policy, the demand for the return of Alsace and Lorraine faded in importance after 1880 with the decline of the monarchists element. When the World War broke out in 1914, recovery of the two lost provinces became the top French war goal.
In the early 20th century, the increased militarization of Europe, and the lack of negotiation between major powers, led to harsh and rash actions taken by both sides in respect to Alsace-Lorraine during World War I. As soon as war was declared, both the French and German authorities used the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine as propaganda pawns.
Germans living in France were arrested and placed into camps by the French authorities. Upon occupying certain villages, veterans of the 1870 conflict were sought out and arrested by the French army.
The Germans responded to the outbreak of war with harsh measures against the Alsace-Lorraine populace: the Saverne Affair had convinced the high command that the population was hostile to the German Empire and that it should be forced into submission. German troops occupied some homes. The German military feared French partisans – or francs-tireurs, as they had been called during the Franco-Prussian War – would reappear.
German authorities developed policies aimed at reducing the influence of French. In Metz, French street names, which had been displayed in French and German, were suppressed in January 1915. Six months later, on July 15, 1915, German became the only official language in the region, leading to the Germanization of the towns’ names effective September 2, 1915.
Prohibiting the speaking of French in public further increased the exasperation of some of the natives, who were long accustomed to mixing their conversation with French language (see code-switching); however, the use even of one word, as innocent as "bonjour", could incur a fine. Some ethnic Germans in the region cooperated in the persecution as a way to demonstrate German patriotism.
German authorities became increasingly worried about renewed French nationalism. The Reichsland governor stated in February 1918: "Sympathies towards France and repulsion for Germans have penetrated to a frightening depth the petty bourgeoisie and the peasantry". But in order to spare them possible confrontations with relatives in France but also to avoid any desertion from the Alsatian soldiers to the French army,[note 5] German Army draftees from Alsace-Lorraine were sent mainly to the Eastern front, or the Navy (Kaiserliche Marine). About 15,000 Alsatians and Lorrainers served in the German Navy.....
WW2: Main article: Malgré-nous
After the defeat of France in the spring of 1940, Alsace and Moselle were not formally annexed by Nazi Germany. Although the terms of the armistice specified that the integrity of the whole French territory could not be modified in any way, Adolf Hitler, the German Führer, drafted an annexation law in 1940 that he kept secret, expecting to announce it in the event of a German victory. Through a series of laws which individually seemed minor, Berlin took full control of Alsace-Lorraine, and Alsatians-Lorrainians could be drafted into the German Army. During the occupation, Moselle was integrated into a Reichsgau named Westmark and Alsace was amalgamated with Baden. Beginning in 1942, people from Alsace and Moselle were made German citizens by decree of the Nazi government.
Beginning in October 1942, young Alsatian and Lorrainian men were inducted into the German armed forces. Sometimes they were known as the malgré-nous, which could be translated in English as "against our will". A small minority, however, volunteered, notably the author of The Forgotten Soldier, known by the pseudonym Guy Sajer. Ultimately, 100,000 Alsatians and 30,000 Mosellans were enrolled, many of them to fight on the Eastern Front against the Soviet Red Army. Most of those who survived the war were interned in Tambov in Russia in 1945. Many others fought in Normandy against the Allies as the malgré-nous of the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich, some of which were involved in the Oradour sur Glane and Tulle war crimes. After the defeat of France in the spring of 1940, Alsace and Moselle were not formally annexed by Nazi Germany. Although the terms of the armistice specified that the integrity of the whole French territory could not be modified in any way, Adolf Hitler, the German Führer, drafted an annexation law in 1940 that he kept secret, expecting to announce it in the event of a German victory. Through a series of laws which individually seemed minor, Berlin took full control of Alsace-Lorraine, and Alsatians-Lorrainians could be drafted into the German Army. During the occupation, Moselle was integrated into a Reichsgau named Westmark and Alsace was amalgamated with Baden. Beginning in 1942, people from Alsace and Moselle were made German citizens by decree of the Nazi government.
Speaking Alsatian, Lorraine Franconian or French was prohibited under German occupation, and learning German was obligatory.
After the defeat of France in the spring of 1940, Alsace and Moselle were not formally annexed by Nazi Germany. Although the terms of the armistice specified that the integrity of the whole French territory could not be modified in any way, Adolf Hitler, the German Führer, drafted an annexation law in 1940 that he kept secret, expecting to announce it in the event of a German victory. Through a series of laws which individually seemed minor, Berlin took full control of Alsace-Lorraine, and Alsatians-Lorrainians could be drafted into the German Army. During the occupation, Moselle was integrated into a Reichsgau named Westmark and Alsace was amalgamated with Baden. Beginning in 1942, people from Alsace and Moselle were made German citizens by decree of the Nazi government.
Beginning in October 1942, young Alsatian and Lorrainian men were inducted into the German armed forces. Sometimes they were known as the malgré-nous, which could be translated in English as "against our will". A small minority, however, volunteered, notably the author of The Forgotten Soldier, known by the pseudonym Guy Sajer. Ultimately, 100,000 Alsatians and 30,000 Mosellans were enrolled, many of them to fight on the Eastern Front against the Soviet Red Army. Most of those who survived the war were interned in Tambov in Russia in 1945. Many others fought in Normandy against the Allies as the malgré-nous of the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich, some of which were involved in the Oradour sur Glane and Tulle war crimes. After the defeat of France in the spring of 1940, Alsace and Moselle were not formally annexed by Nazi Germany. Although the terms of the armistice specified that the integrity of the whole French territory could not be modified in any way, Adolf Hitler, the German Führer, drafted an annexation law in 1940 that he kept secret, expecting to announce it in the event of a German victory. Through a series of laws which individually seemed minor, Berlin took full control of Alsace-Lorraine, and Alsatians-Lorrainians could be drafted into the German Army. During the occupation, Moselle was integrated into a Reichsgau named Westmark and Alsace was amalgamated with Baden. Beginning in 1942, people from Alsace and Moselle were made German citizens by decree of the Nazi government.
Speaking Alsatian, Lorraine Franconian or French was prohibited under German occupation, and learning German was obligatory.
Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1
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22-7-26 France's Hx & Geostrategic Choices in Central Europe - gtbt > .
The government, regular forces and police subsequently evacuated the city for Versailles. The vacuum of power was filled by units of the National Guard. By the next evening the red flag of the Commune was flying over the Hôtel de Ville. Elections were called and, on 26 March, ninety-two representatives were elected to form the Commune council.
The results were declared on 27 March and the Council held its first meeting the following day. Within a week, however, the first skirmishes between the Commune’s National Guard and the regular army from Versailles had begun.
The refusal of the Communards to accept the authority of the French government led to the Commune being brutally suppressed by the regular French army in May during ‘The Bloody Week’. By 28 May the Commune had been defeated. Estimates say that between 10 and 50,000 Communards were killed or executed.
France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading the North German Confederation to respond with its own mobilisation later that day. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on Prussia, and the declaration of war was delivered to Prussia three days later. French forces invaded German territory on 2 August. The German coalition mobilised its troops much more effectively than the French and invaded northeastern France on 4 August. The German forces were superior in numbers, had better training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railways and artillery.
A series of swift Prussian and German victories in eastern France, culminating in the siege of Metz and the Battle of Sedan, saw French Emperor Napoleon III captured and the army of the Second Empire decisively defeated. A Government of National Defence declared the Third French Republic in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months; the German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France. The French capital, Paris, was besieged and fell on 28 January 1871, after which a revolutionary uprising called the Paris Commune seized power in the city and held it for two months, until it was bloodily suppressed by the regular French army at the end of May 1871.
The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck. They finally united most of Germany as a nation-state (Austria was excluded). The Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen). Following this war, Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades.
French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with British apprehension about the balance of power, became factors in the causes of WW1.
28th March 1871: Paris Commune proclaimed; Council met for first time - HiPo > .
The government, regular forces and police subsequently evacuated the city for Versailles. The vacuum of power was filled by units of the National Guard. By the next evening the red flag of the Commune was flying over the Hôtel de Ville. Elections were called and, on 26 March, ninety-two representatives were elected to form the Commune council.
However, as a result of some nominees securing victories for multiple seats, and some candidates who had been nominated without their approval refusing to take up their seat, only 60 representatives actually joined the Council.
The results were declared on 27 March and the Council held its first meeting the following day. Within a week, however, the first skirmishes between the Commune’s National Guard and the regular army from Versailles had begun.
The refusal of the Communards to accept the authority of the French government led to the Commune being brutally suppressed by the regular French army in May during ‘The Bloody Week’. By 28 May the Commune had been defeated. Estimates say that between 10 and 50,000 Communards were killed or executed.
The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are strongly rooted in the events surrounding the gradual march toward the unification of the German states under Otto von Bismarck. In the midst of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Empress Eugénie, Foreign Minister Drouyn de Lhuys and War Minister Randon, worried that a Prussian victory might jeopardize France's status as the dominant power in Europe gained after the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, unsuccessfully urged Napoleon to implement an armed mediation which would consist in a mobilization and the massing of troops at France's eastern borders while the bulk of the Prussian armies were still engaged in Bohemia, as a warning that no territorial changes could be effected in Germany without France being consulted. As a result of Prussia's annexation of several German states which had sided with Austria during the war and the formation of the North German Confederation under Prussia's aegis, French public opinion stiffened and now demanded more firmness as well as territorial compensations. As a result, Napoleon demanded to Prussia a return to the French borders of 1814, with the annexation of Luxembourg, most of Saarland, and the Bavarian Palatinate. Bismarck flatly refused what he disdainfully termed France's "politique des pourboires" (gratuity policy). He then communicated Napoleon's written territorial demands to Bavaria and the other southern German states of Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, which hastened the conclusion of defensive military alliances with these states. France had been strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, which would have significantly strengthened Prussia militarily.
In Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. This aim was epitomized by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's later statement: "I did not doubt that a Franco-German war must take place before the construction of a United Germany could be realised." Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the four southern German states to side with Prussia, hence giving Germans numerical superiority. He was convinced that France would not find any allies in her war against Germany for the simple reason that "France, the victor, would be a danger to everybody – Prussia to nobody," and he added, "That is our strong point." Many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace.
The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a Prussian prince, to the throne of Spain. France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern prince's candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, but Otto von Bismarck goaded the French into declaring war by releasing an altered summary of the Ems Dispatch, a telegram sent by William I rejecting French demands that Prussia never again support a Hohenzollern candidacy. Bismarck's summary, as mistranslated by the French press Havas, made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France.
In Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. This aim was epitomized by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's later statement: "I did not doubt that a Franco-German war must take place before the construction of a United Germany could be realised." Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the four southern German states to side with Prussia, hence giving Germans numerical superiority. He was convinced that France would not find any allies in her war against Germany for the simple reason that "France, the victor, would be a danger to everybody – Prussia to nobody," and he added, "That is our strong point." Many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace.
The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a Prussian prince, to the throne of Spain. France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern prince's candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, but Otto von Bismarck goaded the French into declaring war by releasing an altered summary of the Ems Dispatch, a telegram sent by William I rejecting French demands that Prussia never again support a Hohenzollern candidacy. Bismarck's summary, as mistranslated by the French press Havas, made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France.
France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading the North German Confederation to respond with its own mobilisation later that day. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on Prussia, and the declaration of war was delivered to Prussia three days later. French forces invaded German territory on 2 August. The German coalition mobilised its troops much more effectively than the French and invaded northeastern France on 4 August. The German forces were superior in numbers, had better training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railways and artillery.
A series of swift Prussian and German victories in eastern France, culminating in the siege of Metz and the Battle of Sedan, saw French Emperor Napoleon III captured and the army of the Second Empire decisively defeated. A Government of National Defence declared the Third French Republic in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months; the German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France. The French capital, Paris, was besieged and fell on 28 January 1871, after which a revolutionary uprising called the Paris Commune seized power in the city and held it for two months, until it was bloodily suppressed by the regular French army at the end of May 1871.
The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck. They finally united most of Germany as a nation-state (Austria was excluded). The Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen). Following this war, Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades.
French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with British apprehension about the balance of power, became factors in the causes of WW1.
Thursday, November 26, 2015
Canada, 1867+
Evolution of Canadian Territory 1870+ | Atlas Canada > .
24-2-13 Canada is Relatively Unpopulated - Different > .
24-2-13 Canada is Relatively Unpopulated - Different > .
Canadian Confederation (Confédération canadienne) was the process by which the British colonies of the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into one federation, Canada (formally the Dominion of Canada), on July 1, 1867. Upon confederation, the old province of Canada was divided into Ontario and Quebec; along with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the new federation thus comprised four provinces. Over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current union of ten provinces and three territories.
1865-4-12 Lincoln Assassinated
.26th April 1865: John Wilkes Booth killed; Union troops - HiPo > .
On the night of 12 April 1865, famed actor John Wilkes Booth entered President Lincoln’s box at Ford’s Theater in Washington D.C. and shot him in the back of the head. After stabbing Major Henry Rathbone who was accompanying the President, Booth jumped down to the stage, injuring his leg. Here, according to some witnesses, he shouted ‘Sic semper tyrannis!’ (Latin for ‘Thus always to tyrants,’ the state motto of Virginia) before leaving through a side door and riding away on a waiting horse.
Booth fled across the Navy Yard Bridge to his home state of Maryland, accompanied by co-conspirator David Herold. After visiting Dr. Samuel Mudd who treated Booth’s injured leg, the two fugitives hid in woodland before crossing the Potomac River into Virginia on 23 April. The next day 25 Union soldiers, led by Lieutenant Edward P. Doherty and accompanied by intelligence officer Everton Conger, were sent to find and capture Booth.
After landing in Virginia, Conger interrogated William S. Jett, a former private in the 9th Virginia Cavalry, who had helped Booth and Herold find shelter at Richard H. Garrett’s farm on the other side of the Rappahannock River. The soldiers arrived at the farm on the morning of 26 April, where they found the fugitives hiding in a tobacco barn.
After landing in Virginia, Conger interrogated William S. Jett, a former private in the 9th Virginia Cavalry, who had helped Booth and Herold find shelter at Richard H. Garrett’s farm on the other side of the Rappahannock River. The soldiers arrived at the farm on the morning of 26 April, where they found the fugitives hiding in a tobacco barn.
Conger threatened to set fire to the barn unless the men gave themselves up. Herold surrendered, but Booth refused. As the barn burned, Sergeant Boston Corbett shot Booth on his own initiative, inflicting a fatal neck wound. He was dragged out of the barn and died three hours later, muttering ‘Useless,’ as he gazed at his hands.
1865-1-31 Abolition of Slavery, 13th Amendment
.31st January 1865: 13th Amendment - US Congress - abolition of slavery - HiPo > .
President Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, that came into force in 1863, ended slavery in the Confederate States that were at war with the Union. However, other states that remained loyal yet still operated slavery were not affected. Nevertheless, the Emancipation Proclamation encouraged abolitionists to find a way to end slavery in every state through a constitutional amendment.
Three separate proposals for an amendment banning slavery were introduced by Representatives James Ashley of Ohio and James Wilson of Iowa, and Senator John Henderson of Missouri. The Senate Judiciary Committee subsequently presented an amendment proposal to the Senate in early 1864. Despite finding support in the Senate, it nevertheless twice failed to secure the necessary two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives.
At the end of the year Lincoln won re-election, having announced that he intended to abolish slavery by constitutional amendment. The Republican Party also made gains in both the House and the Senate, which they claimed was a mandate for abolition. Nevertheless it was still necessary to secure votes from Democrats, and various legislators including Secretary of State William H. Seward lobbied and sometimes promised government jobs to outgoing politicians in return for votes.
Finally, on 31 January 1865, the amendment was passed by the House of Representatives with a vote of 119-56. It was sent to the states for ratification the next day, a process that was concluded on 6 December after the necessary three-quarters of states approved it.
Three separate proposals for an amendment banning slavery were introduced by Representatives James Ashley of Ohio and James Wilson of Iowa, and Senator John Henderson of Missouri. The Senate Judiciary Committee subsequently presented an amendment proposal to the Senate in early 1864. Despite finding support in the Senate, it nevertheless twice failed to secure the necessary two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives.
At the end of the year Lincoln won re-election, having announced that he intended to abolish slavery by constitutional amendment. The Republican Party also made gains in both the House and the Senate, which they claimed was a mandate for abolition. Nevertheless it was still necessary to secure votes from Democrats, and various legislators including Secretary of State William H. Seward lobbied and sometimes promised government jobs to outgoing politicians in return for votes.
Finally, on 31 January 1865, the amendment was passed by the House of Representatives with a vote of 119-56. It was sent to the states for ratification the next day, a process that was concluded on 6 December after the necessary three-quarters of states approved it.
Chartists 1836-1857
What was the Secret Ballot? | The Ballot Act 1872 > .
Chartism - HiHu >> .
Protest in the Nineteenth Century - HiHu >> .
Nineteenth Century Social Reform - HiHu >> .
Protest in the Nineteenth Century - HiHu >> .
Nineteenth Century Social Reform - HiHu >> .
In 1832, voting rights were given to the property-owning middle classes in Britain, but many wanted further political reform.
Chartism emerged in 1836 as a working class movement, aimed at securing political rights and influence. It was most active between 1838 and 1848. The aim of the Chartists was to
Chartism was named for the People’s Charter, which listed the six main aims of the movement. These were:
Some opponents of the movement feared that Chartists were not just interested in changing the way Parliament was elected, but really wanted to turn society upside down by starting a revolution. They also thought that the Chartists (who said they disapproved of violent protest) were stirring up a wave of riots around the country. On 4 November 1839, 5,000 men marched into Newport, in Monmouthshire, and attempted to take control of the town. Led by three well-known Chartists (John Frost, William Jones and Zephaniah Williams), they gathered outside the Westgate Hotel, where the local authorities were temporarily holding a number of potential troublemakers. Troops protecting the hotel opened fire, killing at least 22 people, and brought the uprising to an abrupt end. Preston in Lancashire was the scene of rioting in 1842.
Support for Chartism peaked at times of economic depression and hunger. There was rioting in Stockport, due to unemployment and near-starvation, and Manchester, where workers protested against wage cuts, wanting "a fair day's pay for a fair day's labour". The "Plug Plots" were a series of strikes in Lancashire, Yorkshire, the Midlands and parts of Scotland that took place in the summer of 1842. Workers removed the plugs from the boilers in order to bring factory machinery to a halt. Wage cuts were the main issue, but support for Chartism was also strong at this time.
Although the Chartist movement ended without achieving its aims, the fear of civil unrest remained. Later in the century, many Chartist ideas were included in the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884.
Chartism emerged in 1836 as a working class movement, aimed at securing political rights and influence. It was most active between 1838 and 1848. The aim of the Chartists was to
Chartism was named for the People’s Charter, which listed the six main aims of the movement. These were:
- a vote for all men (over 21)
- the secret ballot
- no property qualification to become an MP
- payment for MPs
- electoral districts of equal size
- annual elections for Parliament
Some opponents of the movement feared that Chartists were not just interested in changing the way Parliament was elected, but really wanted to turn society upside down by starting a revolution. They also thought that the Chartists (who said they disapproved of violent protest) were stirring up a wave of riots around the country. On 4 November 1839, 5,000 men marched into Newport, in Monmouthshire, and attempted to take control of the town. Led by three well-known Chartists (John Frost, William Jones and Zephaniah Williams), they gathered outside the Westgate Hotel, where the local authorities were temporarily holding a number of potential troublemakers. Troops protecting the hotel opened fire, killing at least 22 people, and brought the uprising to an abrupt end. Preston in Lancashire was the scene of rioting in 1842.
Support for Chartism peaked at times of economic depression and hunger. There was rioting in Stockport, due to unemployment and near-starvation, and Manchester, where workers protested against wage cuts, wanting "a fair day's pay for a fair day's labour". The "Plug Plots" were a series of strikes in Lancashire, Yorkshire, the Midlands and parts of Scotland that took place in the summer of 1842. Workers removed the plugs from the boilers in order to bring factory machinery to a halt. Wage cuts were the main issue, but support for Chartism was also strong at this time.
Although the Chartist movement ended without achieving its aims, the fear of civil unrest remained. Later in the century, many Chartist ideas were included in the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884.
1835-1-30 Andrew Jackson - assassination attempt
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23-9-14 Kill or capture? Morality of assassination in war | DiD - Tele > .
Lawrence was set upon by the crowd, and the President himself, before he was taken away by police to stand trial for attempted murder. Francis Scott Key, the writer of the poem that became “The Star-Spangled Banner”, was the prosecutor in the case but it soon became clear that Lawrence was mentally unstable and delusional. He maintained that he was the 15th-century English king Richard III, and refused to recognize the legitimacy of the court.
After just five minutes’ deliberation the jury found Lawrence ‘not guilty by reason of insanity’ and he was committed to an asylum. Nevertheless some people, including the President himself, believed the assassination attempt was a conspiracy by his political enemies....
Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson gained fame as a general in the United States Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. An expansionist president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the "common man" against a "corrupt aristocracy" and to preserve the Union.
Many of his actions proved divisive, garnering both fervent support and strong opposition from many in the country. His reputation has suffered since the 1970s, largely due to his role in Native American removal; however, surveys of historians and scholars have ranked Jackson favorably among U.S. presidents.
Andrew Jackson survives the first assassination attempt of a sitting US President: Andrew Jackson had been censured in 1834 in the aftermath of his decision to veto a bill that would have reauthorized the charter of the Second Bank of the United States. The confrontational nature of his dealings with government saw him make many enemies, but it was an unemployed house painter from England who attempted to kill him on 30 January 1835.
Jackson was leaving the funeral of South Carolina Representative Warren Davis at the Capitol Building when Richard Lawrence attacked him. The would-be assassin was equipped with two single-shot Derringer pistols, and he had aimed the first at Jackson as he passed through the East Portico of the Capitol. Although the sound of the percussion cap exploding echoed around the Capitol the gun misfired, possibly due to damp weather, and the President reportedly prepared to strike Lawrence with his cane as the shocked painter raised the second gun that also misfired.
Jackson was leaving the funeral of South Carolina Representative Warren Davis at the Capitol Building when Richard Lawrence attacked him. The would-be assassin was equipped with two single-shot Derringer pistols, and he had aimed the first at Jackson as he passed through the East Portico of the Capitol. Although the sound of the percussion cap exploding echoed around the Capitol the gun misfired, possibly due to damp weather, and the President reportedly prepared to strike Lawrence with his cane as the shocked painter raised the second gun that also misfired.
Lawrence was set upon by the crowd, and the President himself, before he was taken away by police to stand trial for attempted murder. Francis Scott Key, the writer of the poem that became “The Star-Spangled Banner”, was the prosecutor in the case but it soon became clear that Lawrence was mentally unstable and delusional. He maintained that he was the 15th-century English king Richard III, and refused to recognize the legitimacy of the court.
After just five minutes’ deliberation the jury found Lawrence ‘not guilty by reason of insanity’ and he was committed to an asylum. Nevertheless some people, including the President himself, believed the assassination attempt was a conspiracy by his political enemies.
Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson gained fame as a general in the United States Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. An expansionist president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the "common man" against a "corrupt aristocracy" and to preserve the Union.
1834-8-1 Abolition of Slavery, UK
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1834-8-1 Slavery Abolition Act enforced; United Kingdom - HiPo > .It was these slaves that the new Slavery Abolition Act sought to address, and it received royal assent in 1833. The Act outlawed slavery throughout the British Empire although the impact took a long time to be felt. There were also some exceptions such as in areas controlled by the East India Company.
A key problem facing the government was what to do with the former slaves. The Act addressed this issue by stating that former slaves over the age of six became ‘apprentices’ and continued to work on the same plantations in largely the same conditions as before. Many of them were only fully emancipated six years later in 1840, although all slaves in Trinidad were fully emancipated ahead of schedule in 1838.
The position of the former slave owners themselves was also addressed in the Slavery Abolition Act. It’s important to remember that the Act effectively stripped slave-owners of their property. The Act therefore compensated the slave-owners for their loss of property. This was done by the Slave Compensation Commission that awarded the equivalent of £17bn in today’s money, funded by the taxpayer, to 46,000 slave owners.
A searchable online database of every slave-owner who was awarded compensation by the Commission is available to view at www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs.
1832 Great Reform Act
.The Great Reform Act 1832: Origins and Opposition | feat UK Parliamentary Archives > .
The Representation of the People Act 1832 (also known as the 1832 Reform Act, Great Reform Act or First Reform Act) was an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom (indexed as 2 & 3 Will. IV c. 45) that introduced major changes to the electoral system of England and Wales. It abolished tiny districts, gave representation to cities, gave the vote to small landowners, tenant farmers, shopkeepers, householders who paid a yearly rental of £10 or more, and some lodgers. Only qualifying men were able to vote; the Act introduced the first explicit statutory bar to women's voting, by defining a voter as a male person.
It was designed to correct abuses – to "take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament". Before the reform, most members nominally represented boroughs. The number of electors in a borough varied widely, from a dozen or so up to 12,000. Frequently the selection of Members of Parliament (MPs) was effectively controlled by one powerful patron: for example Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, controlled eleven boroughs. Criteria for qualification for the franchise varied greatly among boroughs, from the requirement to own land, to merely living in a house with a hearth sufficient to boil a pot.
There had been calls for reform long before 1832, but without success. The Act that finally succeeded was proposed by the Whigs, led by Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey. It met with significant opposition from the Pittite factions in Parliament, who had long governed the country; opposition was especially pronounced in the House of Lords. Nevertheless, the bill was eventually passed, mainly as a result of public pressure. The Act granted seats in the House of Commons to large cities that had sprung up during the Industrial Revolution, and removed seats from the "rotten boroughs": those with very small electorates and usually dominated by a wealthy patron. The Act also increased the electorate from about 400,000 to 650,000, making about one in five adult males eligible to vote.
The full title is An Act to amend the representation of the people in England and Wales. Its formal short title and citation is "Representation of the People Act 1832 (2 & 3 Wm. IV, c. 45)". The Act applied only in England and Wales; the Irish Reform Act 1832 brought similar changes to Ireland. The separate Scottish Reform Act 1832 was revolutionary, enlarging the electorate by a factor of 13 from 5,000 to 65,000.
It was designed to correct abuses – to "take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament". Before the reform, most members nominally represented boroughs. The number of electors in a borough varied widely, from a dozen or so up to 12,000. Frequently the selection of Members of Parliament (MPs) was effectively controlled by one powerful patron: for example Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, controlled eleven boroughs. Criteria for qualification for the franchise varied greatly among boroughs, from the requirement to own land, to merely living in a house with a hearth sufficient to boil a pot.
There had been calls for reform long before 1832, but without success. The Act that finally succeeded was proposed by the Whigs, led by Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey. It met with significant opposition from the Pittite factions in Parliament, who had long governed the country; opposition was especially pronounced in the House of Lords. Nevertheless, the bill was eventually passed, mainly as a result of public pressure. The Act granted seats in the House of Commons to large cities that had sprung up during the Industrial Revolution, and removed seats from the "rotten boroughs": those with very small electorates and usually dominated by a wealthy patron. The Act also increased the electorate from about 400,000 to 650,000, making about one in five adult males eligible to vote.
The full title is An Act to amend the representation of the people in England and Wales. Its formal short title and citation is "Representation of the People Act 1832 (2 & 3 Wm. IV, c. 45)". The Act applied only in England and Wales; the Irish Reform Act 1832 brought similar changes to Ireland. The separate Scottish Reform Act 1832 was revolutionary, enlarging the electorate by a factor of 13 from 5,000 to 65,000.
Saturday, November 21, 2015
1815-2-26 Bonaparte Escapes
1815-2-26 Bonaparte escapes exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba - HiPo > .
On 9 June 1815 the ‘Final Act’ of the Congress of Vienna was signed, nine days before Napoleon’s final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.
The Congress was chaired by Metternich, the Austrian principal minister, and led by the ‘Four Great Powers’ of Austria, Russia, Britain, and Prussia alongside France. In total over 200 states were represented in some way at the Congress, making it the largest diplomatic event of its time. However, the key terms were discussed and decided by the Great Powers in informal meetings.
The Congress met with the purpose of reviewing and reorganising Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. By doing this, the Great Powers hoped to achieve a lasting peace. Having first met after the defeat and surrender of Napoleonic France in 1814, the meetings continued in spite of the renewal of hostilities following the period known as the Hundred Days in which Napoleon returned from exile and took back control of France.
The Final Act of the Congress set in place a map of Europe that remained largely unchanged for the next forty years, and which laid the foundations for the First World War. Historians and politicians in the later 19th Century even criticised the attendees for focusing more on achieving a balance of power than on maintaining peace.
The Final Settlement largely ignored the emerging nationalist sentiments in parts of Europe, and this exclusion was particularly heavily criticised by later commentators. Although nationalist movements were a key factor in the disputes and conflicts that emerged later, it’s important to remember that the Congress did succeed in its primary aim of securing wider European peace for the best part of a century.
1815-6-9 Final Act of Congress of Vienna signed, days before Waterloo - HiPo > .
On 26 February 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte escaped exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba and sailed to the French mainland.
On 11 April 1814 Napoleon had agreed to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, in which he abdicated the throne following his defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition. The Treaty ended his rule of France but allowed him to keep his title as Emperor. He was granted sovereignty of the island of Elba and, following a failed suicide attempt, arrived on the island on 30 May.
Throughout the nine months and twenty-one days that he remained on Elba, Napoleon observed with interest the unfolding situation in France under the restored Bourbon king. Meanwhile he implemented a series of social and economic reforms to improve the situation on the island.
It was Napoleon’s confidence in the likelihood of a popular revolt in his favour that led to him leaving the island. Furthermore the Great Powers were distracted by internal disagreements at the Congress of Vienna. The ships from the British Navy that were supposed to ensure Napoleon was unable to escape his exile were not in the area when, on 26 February, he left the island and headed for the French mainland on board the brig Inconstant accompanied by almost a thousand troops.
Napoleon’s arrival in France was greeted with enthusiasm. After landing at the coastal town of Golfe-Juan on 1 March, he quickly secured support from a small army with whom he marched to Paris. His arrival on 20 March led Louis XVIII to flee the city and heralded the start of a period of Napoleonic government that became known as the Hundred Days.
On 26 February 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte escaped exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba and sailed to the French mainland.
Throughout the nine months and twenty-one days that he remained on Elba, Napoleon observed with interest the unfolding situation in France under the restored Bourbon king. Meanwhile he implemented a series of social and economic reforms to improve the situation on the island.
It was Napoleon’s confidence in the likelihood of a popular revolt in his favour that led to him leaving the island. Furthermore the Great Powers were distracted by internal disagreements at the Congress of Vienna. The ships from the British Navy that were supposed to ensure Napoleon was unable to escape his exile were not in the area when, on 26 February, he left the island and headed for the French mainland on board the brig Inconstant accompanied by almost a thousand troops.
Napoleon’s arrival in France was greeted with enthusiasm. After landing at the coastal town of Golfe-Juan on 1 March, he quickly secured support from a small army with whom he marched to Paris. His arrival on 20 March led Louis XVIII to flee the city and heralded the start of a period of Napoleonic government that became known as the Hundred Days.
The Congress met with the purpose of reviewing and reorganising Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. By doing this, the Great Powers hoped to achieve a lasting peace. Having first met after the defeat and surrender of Napoleonic France in 1814, the meetings continued in spite of the renewal of hostilities following the period known as the Hundred Days in which Napoleon returned from exile and took back control of France.
The Final Act of the Congress set in place a map of Europe that remained largely unchanged for the next forty years, and which laid the foundations for the First World War. Historians and politicians in the later 19th Century even criticised the attendees for focusing more on achieving a balance of power than on maintaining peace.
The Final Settlement largely ignored the emerging nationalist sentiments in parts of Europe, and this exclusion was particularly heavily criticised by later commentators. Although nationalist movements were a key factor in the disputes and conflicts that emerged later, it’s important to remember that the Congress did succeed in its primary aim of securing wider European peace for the best part of a century.
Highland Clearances 1815+
.In Our Time: The Highland Clearances - BBC > .
The Highland Clearances (Fuadaichean nan Gàidheal, the "eviction of the Gaels") were the evictions of a significant number of tenants in the Scottish Highlands and Islands, mostly in the period 1750 to 1860.
The second phase (c.1815–20 to 1850s) involved overcrowded crofting communities from the first phase that had lost the means to support themselves, through famine and/or collapse of industries that they had relied on (such as the kelp trade), as well as continuing population growth. This is when "assisted passages" were common, when landowners paid the fares for their tenants to emigrate. Tenants who were selected for this had, in practical terms, little choice but to emigrate. The Highland Potato Famine struck towards the end of this period, giving greater urgency to the process.
Agriculture in the Highlands had always been marginal, with famine a recurrent risk for pre-clearance communities. Nevertheless, population levels increased steadily through the 18th and early 19th centuries. This increase continued through nearly all of the time of the clearances, peaking in 1851, at around 300,000. Emigration was part of Highland history before and during the clearances, and reached its highest level after them. During the first phase of the clearances, emigration could be considered a form of resistance to the loss of status being imposed by a landlord's social engineering.
The eviction of tenants went against dùthchas, the principle that clan members had an inalienable right to rent land in the clan territory. This was never recognised in Scottish law. It was gradually abandoned by clan chiefs as they began to think of themselves simply as commercial landlords, rather than as patriarchs of their people—a process that arguably started with the Statutes of Iona. The clan members continued to rely on dùthchas. This different viewpoint was an inevitable source of grievance. The actions of landlords varied. Some did try to delay or limit evictions, often to their financial cost. The Countess of Sutherland genuinely believed her plans were advantageous for those resettled in crofting communities and could not understand why tenants complained. A few landlords displayed complete lack of concern for evicted tenants.
The second phase (c.1815–20 to 1850s) involved overcrowded crofting communities from the first phase that had lost the means to support themselves, through famine and/or collapse of industries that they had relied on (such as the kelp trade), as well as continuing population growth. This is when "assisted passages" were common, when landowners paid the fares for their tenants to emigrate. Tenants who were selected for this had, in practical terms, little choice but to emigrate. The Highland Potato Famine struck towards the end of this period, giving greater urgency to the process.
Agriculture in the Highlands had always been marginal, with famine a recurrent risk for pre-clearance communities. Nevertheless, population levels increased steadily through the 18th and early 19th centuries. This increase continued through nearly all of the time of the clearances, peaking in 1851, at around 300,000. Emigration was part of Highland history before and during the clearances, and reached its highest level after them. During the first phase of the clearances, emigration could be considered a form of resistance to the loss of status being imposed by a landlord's social engineering.
Wednesday, November 18, 2015
Kate Warne, Detective
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Warne reported back to Pinkerton about all her work when he was away from the office and they worked together, on numerous cases, during their tenure. Pinkerton constantly showed a deep trust in the work that Warne performed and acknowledges so in his memoirs. She was in charge of the Female Detective Bureau established by Pinkerton, her title being Supervisor of Women Agents.Tuesday, November 10, 2015
Siam Avoids Colonization
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Why wasn't Thailand Colonized? - Know > .British Burma (1885-1948): In the 19th century, Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars, continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma. With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886.
French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China) (Indochine française), officially known as the Indochinese Union (Union indochinoise) from 1887 and the Indochinese Federation (French: Fédération indochinoise; Vietnamese: Liên đoàn Đông Dương) after 1947, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia until its demise in 1954. It comprised three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin in the north, Annam in the centre, and Cochinchina in the south, Cambodia, Laos (from 1899) and the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan (from 1898 until 1945). The capital for most of its history (1902–45) was Hanoi; Saigon was the capital from 1887 to 1902 and again from 1945 to 1954.
The French annexed Cochinchina and established a protectorate in Cambodia in 1862 and 1863 respectively. After the French took over northern Vietnam through the Tonkin campaign, the various protectorates were consolidated into one union in 1887. Two more entities were incorporated into the union: the Laotian protectorate and the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan. The French exploited the resources in the region during their rule, but also contributed to improvements of the health and education system in the region. Nevertheless, deep divides remained between the natives and the colonists, leading to sporadic rebellions by the latter. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. After the Japanese surrender, the Viet Minh, a communist organization led by Hồ Chí Minh, declared Vietnamese independence, but France subsequently took back control of French Indochina. An all-out independence war, known as the First Indochina War, broke out in late 1946 between French and Viet Minh forces.
To counter the Viet Minh, the State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was proclaimed in 1949. French efforts to reunite Vietnam were unsuccessful. On 22 October and 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and Kingdom of Cambodia proclaimed their respective independences. Following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French withdrew from Vietnam, which had been split into the two countries (until 1976), and French Indochina was no more.
The French annexed Cochinchina and established a protectorate in Cambodia in 1862 and 1863 respectively. After the French took over northern Vietnam through the Tonkin campaign, the various protectorates were consolidated into one union in 1887. Two more entities were incorporated into the union: the Laotian protectorate and the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan. The French exploited the resources in the region during their rule, but also contributed to improvements of the health and education system in the region. Nevertheless, deep divides remained between the natives and the colonists, leading to sporadic rebellions by the latter. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. After the Japanese surrender, the Viet Minh, a communist organization led by Hồ Chí Minh, declared Vietnamese independence, but France subsequently took back control of French Indochina. An all-out independence war, known as the First Indochina War, broke out in late 1946 between French and Viet Minh forces.
To counter the Viet Minh, the State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was proclaimed in 1949. French efforts to reunite Vietnam were unsuccessful. On 22 October and 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and Kingdom of Cambodia proclaimed their respective independences. Following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French withdrew from Vietnam, which had been split into the two countries (until 1976), and French Indochina was no more.
During the 19th century, the Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded, reaching their greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on rigid racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from but linked to their native subjects. The term Indonesia came into use for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, and set the stage for an independence movement.
Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution. The Netherlands formally recognized Indonesian sovereignty at the 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference with the exception of the Netherlands New Guinea (Western New Guinea), which was ceded to Indonesia 14 years later in 1963 under the provisions of the New York Agreement.
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igitur quī dēsīderat pācem praeparet bellum
igitur quī dēsīderat pācem praeparet bellum therefore, he who desires peace, let him prepare for war sī vīs pācem, parā bellum if you wan...
