Showing posts with label 20th. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 20th. Show all posts
Sunday, December 1, 2024
Saturday, November 2, 2024
Terrorism 2024
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24-10-16 How Egypt’s Army Smoked ISIS - T&P > .24-8-22 Hamas’ Exploitation of Schools - IDF > .24-7-29 Terror Attack is [Likely] - Preston > .
24-7-22 Red Sea & Black Sea - Shipping > .
24-6-6 Egypt is a Ticking Time Bomb - gtbt > . skip > .
24-4-8 Ruscia, America, & West: Security Concerns = Islamic Radicalism - TBN > .24-4-8 [Hamiganda]: How Terrorists in Gaza Manipulate the World - IDF > .
24-4-25 Red Sea | US Strategy Against the Houthis - Shipping > .Resisting Terrorists - αλλο >> .
This is your brain on terrorism - Vox > .
24-3-6 Could the Mossad Have Stopped Iran? | Unpacked > .
24-3-5 Alliance Between Venezuela and Iran - IDF > .
24-2-25 Iran's Bold Claim on Antarctica & Egypt's Gaza Barrier | TBN > .24-3-5 Alliance Between Venezuela and Iran - IDF > .
24-2-8 The Hezbollah-Iran Alliance - IDF > .
23-2-27 Alternate Techniques to Fight Pirates in Mid-Ocean - Fluctus > ....
23-10-10 Hamas: Gazan terrorist militants behind atrocities in Israel | ABC > .
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16-8-23 NATO NOW - Fighting Terrorism > .
Iranian Military
24-9-30 Iranian Military: Israel Shouldn’t Underestimate It - Warographics > .24-7-22 Red Sea & Black Sea - Shipping > .
24-7-22 Red Sea & Black Sea - Shipping > .
U$A/NATO
2024 ..
24-12-29 Warfronts 2024 Retrospective [Proxy WW3] - Warfronts > .Most modern terrorist attacks occur in Iraq, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Syria.
Versus Terrorism ..
Most terrorism experts would probably agree that terrorism is an ideologically non-specific tactic, used to achieve political change, and in play since prehistoric times. It is non-specific (neutral), although not necessarily acceptable, in that it has been used by militants embracing most political ideologies – except for pacifism – and by authoritarian as well as liberal states such as Great Britain, France and the USA.
Although no universally accepted definition exists, there is agreement about its main elements. Terrorism is the threat or use of violence, it is politically or ideologically motivated and the violence is used to communicate a message of political change and intimidation to individuals or groups beyond its immediate victims. In short, terrorism is best understood as violence used as a form of politicalcommunication manipulation.
On the last day of February 1884, the then home secretary Sir William Harcourt rose in the UK parliament to answer a question about a series of bomb attacks on two of London’s major railway stations. He read out details of an initial investigation of two bombs, one which had detonated at Victoria Station and another which had been discovered, unexploded, at Charing Cross.
The bombs, which had been deposited in the stations’ left luggage offices, were of a similar design, and resembled the remains of bombs that had detonated, Harcourt said, in Glasgow, Liverpool and elsewhere in London. The unexploded device, discovered by a vigilant ticket clerk at Charing Cross, and the remains of the bomb that had detonated at Victoria were rushed to the Woolwich Arsenal.
In the second half of the 19th century, European anarchism introduced the idea of “propaganda by deed” as a tactic of anti-government resistance. This consisted of the assassination of government officials and bomb attacks in public places such as cafes and theatres.
Although anarchist attacks were actually more common in continental Europe, England was an important hub for anarchist thought. The less restrictive laws of the United Kingdom made it a haven for radicals fleeing political repression in their own countries.
In the same period, the heavy death toll of the Great Famine in Ireland from 1846 to 1852 prompted calls for Irish home rule and resulted in the formation of networks of radical revolutionaries, the Fenians.
Although the largest Fenian campaigns were waged in Canada and in Ireland itself, attacks within England included the bombing of Clerkenwell Prison in London in 1867, in which 12 people were killed and more than 100 injured. The result was a severe backlash by British authorities and the public, which undermined the political reforms that would have made future attacks less likely.
The first examples of people being labelled “terrorists” were almost exclusively reserved for acts of non-Western terrorism. When terrorist tactics were used against governments and civilians in Western Europe or the USA – by Fenians and anarchists or anti-colonial separatists in British India, for example – "terrorism" was generally not mentioned. Instead, such violence was more often described in terms of "outrage" or "assassination".
This is despite the fact that these groups used the same terrorist tactics and technologies as the Russian terrorists. The new terminology was apparently reserved for the Russian revolutionary cause. It was only after WW1 that these other forms of terrorism in and against Western governments started to more generally be labelled as "terrorism".
Although no universally accepted definition exists, there is agreement about its main elements. Terrorism is the threat or use of violence, it is politically or ideologically motivated and the violence is used to communicate a message of political change and intimidation to individuals or groups beyond its immediate victims. In short, terrorism is best understood as violence used as a form of political
...
Although modern terrorism followed the emergence of modern mass politics and mass media, terrorist violence has probably been used as a political tactic since time immemorial. The Jewish Zealots and the Islamic Assassins were ancient terrorists. They used violence to communicate messages of freedom from opposition and resistance to submission....
Terrorism’s modern meaning and use to label an intentional political tactic came with the French Revolution. During The Terror, Robespierre described it as a virtuous form of violence, to be used by the new revolutionary democratic state against its domestic enemies.
Following this, the labels of terrorism and terrorists were used by 19th century newspapers to describe intimidation and violence by states against their subjects, such as “the terrorism practiced by the police” in Russia and the “oppressive system of military terrorism” in Poland.
Modern terrorism, which implies the systematic use of violence against the state, rather than by it, emerged in Europe in the 1870s. The person generally recognised as the first terrorist was the 26-year-old social revolutionary Vera Zasulich, who shot the Governor of St Petersburg in 1878 to protest the Russian state’s repression of domestic political protest.
Terrorism’s modern meaning and use to label an intentional political tactic came with the French Revolution. During The Terror, Robespierre described it as a virtuous form of violence, to be used by the new revolutionary democratic state against its domestic enemies.
Following this, the labels of terrorism and terrorists were used by 19th century newspapers to describe intimidation and violence by states against their subjects, such as “the terrorism practiced by the police” in Russia and the “oppressive system of military terrorism” in Poland.
Modern terrorism, which implies the systematic use of violence against the state, rather than by it, emerged in Europe in the 1870s. The person generally recognised as the first terrorist was the 26-year-old social revolutionary Vera Zasulich, who shot the Governor of St Petersburg in 1878 to protest the Russian state’s repression of domestic political protest.
...
The new violent political practice was soon institutionalised with the emergence of organised terrorist groups. First came Narodnaya Volya (The People’s Will), a group of Russian social revolutionaries and self-proclaimed terrorists, who in 1881 succeeded in assassinating Tsar Alexander II with a dynamite bomb.--
Britain's first bomb disposal expert: Colonel Vivian Majendie and the original ‘war on terror’.The bombs, which had been deposited in the stations’ left luggage offices, were of a similar design, and resembled the remains of bombs that had detonated, Harcourt said, in Glasgow, Liverpool and elsewhere in London. The unexploded device, discovered by a vigilant ticket clerk at Charing Cross, and the remains of the bomb that had detonated at Victoria were rushed to the Woolwich Arsenal.
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It is almost impossible to pinpoint the very first act of terrorism carried out within British territory. The most famous incident in early modern history is probably the gunpowder plot of 1605 when Guy Fawkes attempted to blow up the House of Lords. And although he is the best remembered (on November 5), Fawkes did not act alone. He was part of a larger network of 13 conspirators who sought to destroy parliament and trigger a popular uprising.In the second half of the 19th century, European anarchism introduced the idea of “propaganda by deed” as a tactic of anti-government resistance. This consisted of the assassination of government officials and bomb attacks in public places such as cafes and theatres.
Although anarchist attacks were actually more common in continental Europe, England was an important hub for anarchist thought. The less restrictive laws of the United Kingdom made it a haven for radicals fleeing political repression in their own countries.
In the same period, the heavy death toll of the Great Famine in Ireland from 1846 to 1852 prompted calls for Irish home rule and resulted in the formation of networks of radical revolutionaries, the Fenians.
Although the largest Fenian campaigns were waged in Canada and in Ireland itself, attacks within England included the bombing of Clerkenwell Prison in London in 1867, in which 12 people were killed and more than 100 injured. The result was a severe backlash by British authorities and the public, which undermined the political reforms that would have made future attacks less likely.
...
Recent acts of spectacular violence, such as the mail bombs sent by a tRUMP-supporter to American anti-tRUMP critics, or the mass killings by Canadian “incel” misogynist Alek Minassian, demonstrate a widespread reluctance among media outlets, politicians and authorities to label some acts of ideologically motivated violence as “terrorism”. Such hesitations might give the faulty impression that “terrorism” is reserved purely for anti-Western or Islamist political violence. That is a wrong and dangerous conception.This is despite the fact that these groups used the same terrorist tactics and technologies as the Russian terrorists. The new terminology was apparently reserved for the Russian revolutionary cause. It was only after WW1 that these other forms of terrorism in and against Western governments started to more generally be labelled as "terrorism".
Sunday, May 26, 2024
Canada - Geopolitics
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24-7-16 (Failed) Race For The Arctic - gtbt > .
24-7-1 P00ti lost Ruscia's Arctic dominance to Xina & Baltic NATO forces | Forces > .23-7-23 Arctic is heating fast! - Just > . Arctic Straits > .
20-12-14 Geopolitics of Canada - CaRe > . skip ad > .
1 CE to 2024 Mapping History of the Arctic - Tigerstar > .
Monday, April 29, 2024
42-1-1 Arcadia Conference & Declaration of the United Nations
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45-2-4 Big Three at Yalta (Crimea) Conference - FDR, Churchill, Stalin - HiPo > .At the ongoing Arcadia Conference, 26 nations sign the Declaration of the United Nations.
Friendship Between Britain & USA | Warlords: Churchill vs Roosevelt - Time > .
Following the German declaration of war on America on the 11th of December 1941, Britain gained an invaluable ally. Securing a joint military command between the new partnership was central to its success.
The Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) was the supreme military staff for the United States and Britain during World War II. It set all the major policy decisions for the two nations, subject to the approvals of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The CCS emerged from the meetings of the Arcadia Conference in Washington, from December 22, 1941 to January 14, 1942. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, Prime Minister Churchill and his senior military staff used Arcadia as an opportunity to lay out the general strategy for the war. The American Army Chief of Staff George Marshall came up with the idea of a combined board, and sold it to Roosevelt and together the two sold the idea to Churchill. Churchill's military aides were much less favorable, and General Alan Brooke, the chief of the British Army, was strongly opposed. However, Brooke was left behind in London to handle the daily details of running the British war effort, and was not consulted. As part of Marshall's plan, Roosevelt also set up a Joint Chiefs of Staff on the American side. The combined board was permanently stationed in Washington, where Field Marshal John Dill represented the British half.
The responsibilities of the Combined Chiefs of Staff were set out as follows: Under the direction of the heads of the United Nations, the Combined Chiefs of Staff will collaborate in the formulation and execution of policies and plans concerning:
(a) the strategic conduct of the war;
(b) the broad programme of war requirements based on approved strategic policy;
(c) the direction of munition resources based on strategic needs and the availability of means of transportation; and
(d) the requirements for overseas transportation for the fighting services of the United Nations, based on approved strategic priority.
In the report of the Arcadia Conference, it is noted, to avoid confusion, that the word 'Combined' applied to the Combined Staffs of, or combined action by two or more of the united nations, whilst the word 'Joint' signified inter- service planning by one of the 'united nations.'
The CCS charter was approved by President Roosevelt 21 April 1942. The American members of the CCS were General George C. Marshall, the United States Army chief of staff, the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Harold R. Stark (replaced early in 1942 by Admiral Ernest J. King); and the Chief (later Commanding General) of the Army Air Forces, Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold. In July 1942 a fourth member was added, the President's personal Chief of Staff, Admiral William D. Leahy.
On the British side the Chiefs of Staff only normally attended during the heads of states' conferences. Instead the British Joint Staff Mission was permanently situated in Washington, D.C. to represent British interests. The British members were a representative of the Prime Minister, in his capacity as Minister of Defence, and the Chiefs of Staff Committee, which consisted of the First Sea Lord, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, and the Chief of the Air Staff, or the Washington representative of each. The representative of the Prime Minister was Field Marshal Sir John Dill and after his death Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. The Washington representatives of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, who normally met with the United States members in place of their principals, were the senior officers from their respective services on the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington. In the course of the war, the First Sea Lord was represented by Admiral Sir Charles Little, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, Admiral Sir Percy Noble, and Admiral Sir James Somerville; the Chief of the Imperial General Staff was represented by Lt. Gen. Sir Colville Wemyss and Lt. Gen. G. N. Macready; and the Chief of the Air Staff was represented by Air Marshal D. C. S. Evill, Air Marshal Sir William L. Welsh, and Air Marshal Douglas Colyer. Dill, a close friend of Marshall, often took the American position and prevented a polarizations that would undermine effectiveness.
The Combined Chiefs of Staff organization included the Combined Secretariat and a supporting organisation of combined committees and sub-committees to deal with specific subjects. Of these, the Combined Planning Staff were the body of officers appointed by the Combined Chiefs of Staff to make studies, draft plans, and perform such other work as placed on the Combined Chiefs of Staff agenda and delegated to them by the Combined Planning Staff. Officers attached to the British Joint Staff Mission provided the British element in the secretariat for these combined committees. Their authority did not extend to operations controlled directly by the Admiralty and the US Navy Department.
In the Northern hemisphere spring of 1942, Britain and the United States agreed on a worldwide division of strategic responsibility. On 24 March 1942, the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff were designated as primarily responsible for the war in the Pacific, and the British Chiefs for the Middle East-Indian Ocean region, while the European-Mediterranean-Atlantic area would be a combined responsibility of both staffs. China was designated a separate theater commanded by its chief of state, Chiang Kai-shek, though within the United States' sphere of responsibility. Six days later the Joint Chiefs of Staff divided the Pacific theater into three areas: the Pacific Ocean Areas (POA), the South West Pacific Area (SWPA), and the Southeast Pacific Area. The Pacific Ocean Area command formally became operational on 8 May.
The CCS usually held its meetings in Washington. The full CCS usually met only during the great wartime conferences on grand strategy, such as at Casablanca (see List of WW2 conferences). The British Chiefs of Staff took their place on the Combined Chiefs of Staff Committee at the international conferences (at which Roosevelt and Churchill settled the main lines of allied strategy). For the conferences at Tehran (December 1943), Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945), the British and Americans were joined by the Russian Chiefs of Staff. The meetings of heads of government at those conferences were designed to reach formal agreement on issues thoroughly staffed by the CCS. At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, General Frank Maxwell Andrews was appointed commander of all United States forces in the European Theater of Operations.
Although it was responsible to both the British and American governments, the CCS controlled forces from many different countries in all theaters, including the Pacific, India and North Africa. The existence of the Combined Chiefs of Staff enabled forces to be effectively placed under a commander of a different nationality without breaking the chain of responsibility to their home government, as commanders were responsible to the Combined Chiefs who respectively continued to remain responsible to their own governments. This responsibility was both advisory (in terms of the settlement between governments of the overall strategy) and executive (in terms of formulating and issuing directives to implement that strategy). Representatives of allied nations were not members of the CCS but accepted procedure included consultation with "Military Representatives of Associated Powers" on strategic issues. Much cooperation continued between the British and American militaries after the war including the Combined Chiefs of Staff structure, and it was used again during the Berlin Blockade of 1948 even as negotiations began that resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
(a) the strategic conduct of the war;
(b) the broad programme of war requirements based on approved strategic policy;
(c) the direction of munition resources based on strategic needs and the availability of means of transportation; and
(d) the requirements for overseas transportation for the fighting services of the United Nations, based on approved strategic priority.
In the report of the Arcadia Conference, it is noted, to avoid confusion, that the word 'Combined' applied to the Combined Staffs of, or combined action by two or more of the united nations, whilst the word 'Joint' signified inter- service planning by one of the 'united nations.'
The CCS was constituted from the British Chiefs of Staff Committee and the American Joint Chiefs of Staff, The American unit was created in part to present a common front to the British Chiefs of Staff. It held its first formal meeting on 9 February 1942 to coordinate U.S. military operations between War and Navy Departments.
The CCS charter was approved by President Roosevelt 21 April 1942. The American members of the CCS were General George C. Marshall, the United States Army chief of staff, the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Harold R. Stark (replaced early in 1942 by Admiral Ernest J. King); and the Chief (later Commanding General) of the Army Air Forces, Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold. In July 1942 a fourth member was added, the President's personal Chief of Staff, Admiral William D. Leahy.
On the British side the Chiefs of Staff only normally attended during the heads of states' conferences. Instead the British Joint Staff Mission was permanently situated in Washington, D.C. to represent British interests. The British members were a representative of the Prime Minister, in his capacity as Minister of Defence, and the Chiefs of Staff Committee, which consisted of the First Sea Lord, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, and the Chief of the Air Staff, or the Washington representative of each. The representative of the Prime Minister was Field Marshal Sir John Dill and after his death Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. The Washington representatives of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, who normally met with the United States members in place of their principals, were the senior officers from their respective services on the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington. In the course of the war, the First Sea Lord was represented by Admiral Sir Charles Little, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, Admiral Sir Percy Noble, and Admiral Sir James Somerville; the Chief of the Imperial General Staff was represented by Lt. Gen. Sir Colville Wemyss and Lt. Gen. G. N. Macready; and the Chief of the Air Staff was represented by Air Marshal D. C. S. Evill, Air Marshal Sir William L. Welsh, and Air Marshal Douglas Colyer. Dill, a close friend of Marshall, often took the American position and prevented a polarizations that would undermine effectiveness.
The Combined Chiefs of Staff organization included the Combined Secretariat and a supporting organisation of combined committees and sub-committees to deal with specific subjects. Of these, the Combined Planning Staff were the body of officers appointed by the Combined Chiefs of Staff to make studies, draft plans, and perform such other work as placed on the Combined Chiefs of Staff agenda and delegated to them by the Combined Planning Staff. Officers attached to the British Joint Staff Mission provided the British element in the secretariat for these combined committees. Their authority did not extend to operations controlled directly by the Admiralty and the US Navy Department.
In the Northern hemisphere spring of 1942, Britain and the United States agreed on a worldwide division of strategic responsibility. On 24 March 1942, the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff were designated as primarily responsible for the war in the Pacific, and the British Chiefs for the Middle East-Indian Ocean region, while the European-Mediterranean-Atlantic area would be a combined responsibility of both staffs. China was designated a separate theater commanded by its chief of state, Chiang Kai-shek, though within the United States' sphere of responsibility. Six days later the Joint Chiefs of Staff divided the Pacific theater into three areas: the Pacific Ocean Areas (POA), the South West Pacific Area (SWPA), and the Southeast Pacific Area. The Pacific Ocean Area command formally became operational on 8 May.
The CCS usually held its meetings in Washington. The full CCS usually met only during the great wartime conferences on grand strategy, such as at Casablanca (see List of WW2 conferences). The British Chiefs of Staff took their place on the Combined Chiefs of Staff Committee at the international conferences (at which Roosevelt and Churchill settled the main lines of allied strategy). For the conferences at Tehran (December 1943), Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945), the British and Americans were joined by the Russian Chiefs of Staff. The meetings of heads of government at those conferences were designed to reach formal agreement on issues thoroughly staffed by the CCS. At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, General Frank Maxwell Andrews was appointed commander of all United States forces in the European Theater of Operations.
Although it was responsible to both the British and American governments, the CCS controlled forces from many different countries in all theaters, including the Pacific, India and North Africa. The existence of the Combined Chiefs of Staff enabled forces to be effectively placed under a commander of a different nationality without breaking the chain of responsibility to their home government, as commanders were responsible to the Combined Chiefs who respectively continued to remain responsible to their own governments. This responsibility was both advisory (in terms of the settlement between governments of the overall strategy) and executive (in terms of formulating and issuing directives to implement that strategy). Representatives of allied nations were not members of the CCS but accepted procedure included consultation with "Military Representatives of Associated Powers" on strategic issues. Much cooperation continued between the British and American militaries after the war including the Combined Chiefs of Staff structure, and it was used again during the Berlin Blockade of 1948 even as negotiations began that resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
Monday, April 22, 2024
Monday, April 15, 2024
NATO OTAN 1949
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49-4-11 Schuman, Sforza, Bevin, Acheson sign Atlantic Pact - BrMo > . 23-2-3 Fiona Hill - NATO = Barrier to Pooti's Imperial Ambitions - SC > .22-3-11 NATO Expansion - 1949 to 2022 - mpc > .How does a country join NATO? > .
History of the European Union - mapped > .
History of NATO: Every Year - mapped > .
Atlantic Charter = Cold War to Liberal International System - Geop > .
US treaties post-WW2 - Vox > .
USSR in NATO? 1954 - Cold War > .History of NATO: Every Year - mapped > .
Atlantic Charter = Cold War to Liberal International System - Geop > .
US treaties post-WW2 - Vox > .
> EuM - European Defense >> EU Army?
Alliances - Principles, Geostrategic Benefits ..NATO 2025 ..
EU 2023 ..
Expanding NATO ..Funding NATO ..
NATO 2024 ..
NATO 2023 ..
NATO ➾ 2022 ..
The Treaty of Brussels (48-3-17), also referred to as the Brussels Pact, was the founding treaty of the Western Union (WU) between 1948 and 1954, at which it point it was amended as the Modified Brussels Treaty (MTB) and served as the founding treaty of the Western European Union (WEU) until its termination in 2010. The treaty provided for the organisation of military, economic, social and cultural cooperation among member states, as well as a mutual defence clause.
The treaty was signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom - the members of the Western Union - as an expansion to the Treaty of Dunkirk, signed 47-3-4 between Britain and France to guard against possible German or Soviet aggression after the end of WW2.
The need to back up the commitments of the North Atlantic Treaty 49-4-4 with appropriate political and military structures led to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). In December 1950 the parties to the Treaty of Brussels decided to transfer the headquarters, personnel, and plans of the Western Union Defence Organisation (WUDO) to NATO, whose Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) took over responsibility for the defence of Western Europe.
The establishment of NATO, along with the signing of a succession of treaties establishing the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (April 1948), the Council of Europe (May 1949) and the European Coal and Steel Community (April 1951), left the Treaty of Brussels and its Western Union devoid of authority.
The treaty was amended at the 1954 Paris Conference as a result of the failure of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community to gain French ratification: The General Treaty (German: Deutschlandvertrag) of 1952 formally named the EDC as a prerequisite of the end of Allied occupation of Germany, and there was a desire to include Germany in the Western defence architecture. The Modified Brussels Treaty (MBT) transformed the Western Union into the Western European Union (WEU), at which point Italy and Germany were admitted. Although the WEU established by the Modified Brussels Treaty was significantly less powerful and ambitious than the original Western Union, German membership of the WEU was considered sufficient for the occupation of the country to end in accordance with the General Treaty.
When the European Union (EU) gained its own mutual defence clause upon the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, the members of the WEU - who were also EU member states - regarded the WEU as redundant. Consequently the Modified Treaty of Brussels was terminated on 31 March 2010, followed by the closure of WEU bodies on 30 June 2011.
Russia vs Baltics (NATO) ..
Geostrategic Projection
European Geostrategic Projection ..The Treaty of Brussels (48-3-17), also referred to as the Brussels Pact, was the founding treaty of the Western Union (WU) between 1948 and 1954, at which it point it was amended as the Modified Brussels Treaty (MTB) and served as the founding treaty of the Western European Union (WEU) until its termination in 2010. The treaty provided for the organisation of military, economic, social and cultural cooperation among member states, as well as a mutual defence clause.
The treaty was signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom - the members of the Western Union - as an expansion to the Treaty of Dunkirk, signed 47-3-4 between Britain and France to guard against possible German or Soviet aggression after the end of WW2.
The need to back up the commitments of the North Atlantic Treaty 49-4-4 with appropriate political and military structures led to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). In December 1950 the parties to the Treaty of Brussels decided to transfer the headquarters, personnel, and plans of the Western Union Defence Organisation (WUDO) to NATO, whose Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) took over responsibility for the defence of Western Europe.
The establishment of NATO, along with the signing of a succession of treaties establishing the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (April 1948), the Council of Europe (May 1949) and the European Coal and Steel Community (April 1951), left the Treaty of Brussels and its Western Union devoid of authority.
The treaty was amended at the 1954 Paris Conference as a result of the failure of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community to gain French ratification: The General Treaty (German: Deutschlandvertrag) of 1952 formally named the EDC as a prerequisite of the end of Allied occupation of Germany, and there was a desire to include Germany in the Western defence architecture. The Modified Brussels Treaty (MBT) transformed the Western Union into the Western European Union (WEU), at which point Italy and Germany were admitted. Although the WEU established by the Modified Brussels Treaty was significantly less powerful and ambitious than the original Western Union, German membership of the WEU was considered sufficient for the occupation of the country to end in accordance with the General Treaty.
When the European Union (EU) gained its own mutual defence clause upon the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, the members of the WEU - who were also EU member states - regarded the WEU as redundant. Consequently the Modified Treaty of Brussels was terminated on 31 March 2010, followed by the closure of WEU bodies on 30 June 2011.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Brussels .
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord (OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's Headquarters are located in Evere, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.
Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 29. The most recent member state to be added to NATO is Montenegro on 5 June 2017. NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, North Macedonia and Ukraine as aspiring members. An additional 21 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total. Members have expressed their aim to move towards the target defence spending of 2% of GDP by 2024.
● Acts, Charters, Treaties - post WW1 ..
● Treaties ..
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord (OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's Headquarters are located in Evere, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.
Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 29. The most recent member state to be added to NATO is Montenegro on 5 June 2017. NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, North Macedonia and Ukraine as aspiring members. An additional 21 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total. Members have expressed their aim to move towards the target defence spending of 2% of GDP by 2024.
● Acts, Charters, Treaties - post WW1 ..
● Treaties ..
Thursday, November 24, 2022
Holodomor
The Holodomor (Голодомор: Holodomor; derived from морити голодом, moryty holodom, 'to kill by starvation'), also known as the Terror-Famine or the Great Famine, was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933 that killed millions of Ukrainians. The Holodomor was part of the wider Soviet famine of 1932–1933 which affected the major grain-producing areas of the country. Since 1998, Ukraine has officially observed a Holodomor Memorial Day on the fourth Saturday of November.
➾ 2023 ..
Wednesday, May 4, 2022
Gaming Alternatives
22-5-4 Ten Ways the Ukraine-Russia War Could End - Spaniel > .
23-11-17 America's 3 New Nukes (weapons they counter) - Sandboxx > .
23-10-19 [R-U & NoXious XIR Axis behind Hamas atrocities] - DiD > .
23-9-10 Industrial Competition & Consolidation, Military Procurement - Perun > .
23-9-2 When the Elites Will Topple P00ti (subs) - Katz > .
23-8-29 Dictatorships: From Spin to Fear | Ruscist Regression (subs) - Katz > .
23-8-20 NATO's Rearmament & Spending - NATO's R-U Response - Perun > .
23-8-15 Oppenheimer's nuclear warnings more relevant than ever - Caspian > .
23-5-13 [Ztupidity: P00, Babitchkas, Prickozhin, Fodder, nukes, Xi] - CBC > .
23-5-13 [P00pagandistic manipulation and public opinion] (subs) - Katz > .
23-4-16 R-U Hybrid Warfare: P00paganda, cyber, hybrid methods - Perun > .
23-2-22 How Ukraine Saved Kyiv: Ruscian Missteps, Ukrainian Ingenuity - Spaniel > .
23-2-10 Political Apoothy | Blame Game, Coping Strategies (subs) - Katz > .
23-2-9 Russians vs Ruzzians - "Public" Opinion re Pooti - Times > .
23-2-5 Scary Stalinism vs Pathetic Pootinism [electioneering] (subs) - Katz > .
23-2-3 [Demented Krumblin Conspiracy Poopaganda] (subs) - Katz > .
23-2-3 Fiona Hill - NATO = Barrier to Pooti's Imperial Ambitions - SC > .
23-1-29 Ruscist Information Warfare - LIES, Confusion, Credulity - Perun > .
23-1-26 Ruscist poopaganda 0 : Ukrainian propaganda 1 - Forces > .
23-1-24 Pooti's Ztupid R-U Miscalculation: Self-Inflicted Disaster - Spaniel > .
23-1-22 Politics Can Destroy Armies: Factionalism & R-U War - Perun > .
23-1-18 What will end the war in Ukraine? - Binkov > .
23-5-14 Month 10 | Fake News: Ruscian Poopaganda for Beginners | ARTE > .
22-12-18 Poopaganda calls for "people's war" | [Message Shift] (subs) > .
22-12-14 Failing, Backfiring Ruscist Poopaganda (subs) - Katz > .
22-11-27 Poopaganda: Soviet Future Faking to "Correct Past" (subs) - MK > .
22-10-21 Response if Russia uses a nuclear weapon in Ukraine? - J K-L > .
22-10-7 What If Pootin Nukes Ukraine? - OBF > .
22-9-4 6 Months of Ukraine War - Economics, Endurance, Energy War - Perun > .
22-5-26 Russia Unlikely to Rise Up Against Putin - Complete History > .
1:19 Separatist Regions
3:54 Crimean Land Bridge
5:02 Russian Irredentism
6:42 East-West Rivalry
7:49 Energy
9:36 Water
10:34 Nazis
12:20 Substantive Explanations Are Half-Causes
12:54 Visualizing War's Expected Outcome (LINES ON MAPS)
14:21 Costs Incentivize Bargaining
15:09 Bargaining over Oil
17:00 Bargaining over Autonomy
17:34 Why War Is Puzzling
18:52 Preventive War and Shifting Power
21:00 Preemptive War and First Strikes
24:20 Uncertainty and Miscalculation
26:24 Rational, Unitary Actor Explanations for War
27:05 Irrationality
29:39 Personal Benefits
31:28 Substantive Cases and War Termination
32:57 Leadership Change
36:36 Stopping Power Shifts
39:52 Information Convergence
42:29 Endgame
Proxy Warfare
23-8-19 Art of War: Proxy Warfare - Warographics > . skip > .
R-U - Latest Map 2022 - αλλο >> .
This video covers ten of the most important possibilities, ranging from a complete Russian victory, to a Ukrainian upset, to World War III.
0:18 Afghanistan Syndrome
1:41 Putin Removed from Office
2:42 Victory Day "Victory"
4:20 Putin Gambles for Resurrection
6:08 Negotiated Settlement
7:13 Zelensky Eliminated
8:13 Complete Military Defeat of Ukraine
9:27 Ukraine Destroyed
10:35 It Doesn't
12:10 World War III
0:18 Afghanistan Syndrome
1:41 Putin Removed from Office
2:42 Victory Day "Victory"
4:20 Putin Gambles for Resurrection
6:08 Negotiated Settlement
7:13 Zelensky Eliminated
8:13 Complete Military Defeat of Ukraine
9:27 Ukraine Destroyed
10:35 It Doesn't
12:10 World War III
Causes?
0:00 Outline1:19 Separatist Regions
3:54 Crimean Land Bridge
5:02 Russian Irredentism
6:42 East-West Rivalry
7:49 Energy
9:36 Water
10:34 Nazis
12:20 Substantive Explanations Are Half-Causes
12:54 Visualizing War's Expected Outcome (LINES ON MAPS)
14:21 Costs Incentivize Bargaining
15:09 Bargaining over Oil
17:00 Bargaining over Autonomy
17:34 Why War Is Puzzling
18:52 Preventive War and Shifting Power
21:00 Preemptive War and First Strikes
24:20 Uncertainty and Miscalculation
26:24 Rational, Unitary Actor Explanations for War
27:05 Irrationality
29:39 Personal Benefits
31:28 Substantive Cases and War Termination
32:57 Leadership Change
36:36 Stopping Power Shifts
39:52 Information Convergence
42:29 Endgame
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sī vīs pācem, parā bellum
igitur quī dēsīderat pācem praeparet bellum therefore, he who desires peace, let him prepare for war sī vīs pācem, parā bellum if you wan...
