Wednesday, April 30, 2014
61-7-31 ASA ⇒ 67-8-8 ASEAN
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23-3-10 Bumpy Rise of Indonesia - gtbt > . skip > .
22-7-6 IISS Special Lecture: Australia, ASEAN and Southeast Asia > .
22-5-12 The Philippines - China's New Province - laowhy86 > .
22-5-12 The Philippines - China's New Province - laowhy86 > .
22-2-25 South China Sea dispute explained - Paint > .
Who owns the South China Sea? | CNBC Explains > .
Countries' Economies Explained - EcEx >> .
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (> ASEAN >>) is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising ten countries in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational, and sociocultural integration among its members and other countries in Asia.
ASEAN was preceded by an organisation formed on 31 July 1961 called the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA), a group consisting of Thailand, the Philippines, and the Federation of Malaya. ASEAN itself was created on 8 August 1967, when the foreign ministers of five countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, signed the ASEAN Declaration. As set out in the Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are to accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region, to promote regional peace, collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest, to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities, to collaborate for better utilization of agriculture and industry to raise the living standards of the people, to promote Southeast Asian studies and to maintain close, beneficial co-operation with existing international organisations with similar aims and purposes.
The creation of ASEAN was motivated by a common fear of communism. The group achieved greater cohesion in the mid-1970s following a change in the balance of power after the end of the Vietnam War in 1975. The region's dynamic economic growth during the 1970s strengthened the organization, enabling ASEAN to adopt a unified response to Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia in 1979. ASEAN's first summit meeting, held in Bali, Indonesia in 1976, resulted in an agreement on several industrial projects and the signing of a Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, and a Declaration of Concord. The end of the Cold War allowed ASEAN countries to exercise greater political independence in the region, and in the 1990s ASEAN emerged as a leading voice on regional trade and security issues.
ASEAN also regularly engages other countries in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. A major partner of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, ASEAN maintains a global network of alliances and dialogue partners and is considered by many as a global powerhouse, the central union for cooperation in Asia-Pacific, and a prominent and influential organization. It is involved in numerous international affairs, and hosts diplomatic missions throughout the world. The ASEAN Secretariat is located at Jakarta, Indonesia.
Comment:
ASEAN has had a positive influence in regional tourism, with no visas needed for short term visits as mentioned by Rob' Ramos. The moves towards free trade and and economic community have been slow, but I think steady. The range of consumer products in grocery stores has a lot more products from the region compared to a few decades ago, although China imports are also up. I think many companies find it easier to export to the ASEAN market because rules are somewhat unified, and the recent launch of RCEP with most of ASEAN's dialog partners (Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, China) might bring more changes. I don't think political integration like the EU or even regions of Africa will be on the agenda any time soon, but ASEAN serves an important political function in reminding national governments to stay within international norms. That doesn't always amount to full democracy, but its better than some of the alternatives the region has seen in the not too distant past.
Who owns the South China Sea? | CNBC Explains > .
Countries' Economies Explained - EcEx >> .
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (> ASEAN >>) is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising ten countries in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational, and sociocultural integration among its members and other countries in Asia.
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ASEAN, blue; ASEAN Plus Three, purple; ASEAN Plus Six, teal; Tiger7253
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The creation of ASEAN was motivated by a common fear of communism. The group achieved greater cohesion in the mid-1970s following a change in the balance of power after the end of the Vietnam War in 1975. The region's dynamic economic growth during the 1970s strengthened the organization, enabling ASEAN to adopt a unified response to Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia in 1979. ASEAN's first summit meeting, held in Bali, Indonesia in 1976, resulted in an agreement on several industrial projects and the signing of a Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, and a Declaration of Concord. The end of the Cold War allowed ASEAN countries to exercise greater political independence in the region, and in the 1990s ASEAN emerged as a leading voice on regional trade and security issues.
ASEAN also regularly engages other countries in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. A major partner of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, ASEAN maintains a global network of alliances and dialogue partners and is considered by many as a global powerhouse, the central union for cooperation in Asia-Pacific, and a prominent and influential organization. It is involved in numerous international affairs, and hosts diplomatic missions throughout the world. The ASEAN Secretariat is located at Jakarta, Indonesia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations#ASEAN_Plus_Three .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations#ASEAN_Plus_Six .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations#ASEAN_Plus_Three .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations#ASEAN_Plus_Six .
ASEAN has had a positive influence in regional tourism, with no visas needed for short term visits as mentioned by Rob' Ramos. The moves towards free trade and and economic community have been slow, but I think steady. The range of consumer products in grocery stores has a lot more products from the region compared to a few decades ago, although China imports are also up. I think many companies find it easier to export to the ASEAN market because rules are somewhat unified, and the recent launch of RCEP with most of ASEAN's dialog partners (Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, China) might bring more changes. I don't think political integration like the EU or even regions of Africa will be on the agenda any time soon, but ASEAN serves an important political function in reminding national governments to stay within international norms. That doesn't always amount to full democracy, but its better than some of the alternatives the region has seen in the not too distant past.
The RCEP was conceived at the 2011 ASEAN Summit in Bali, Indonesia, while negotiations formally launched during the 2012 ASEAN Summit in Cambodia. India, which took part in the initial negotiations but later decided to opt out, was invited to join the bloc at any time. Any other country or separate customs territory in the region can apply to join the pact 18 months after it takes force. The treaty was formally signed on 15 November 2020 at the virtual ASEAN Summit hosted by Vietnam. As of 3 December 2021, six of the ten ASEAN and all five of the non-ASEAN signatories have deposited their instruments of RCEP ratification with the Secretary-General of ASEAN. The trade pact took effect on 1 January 2022 for most members.
The RCEP includes a mix of high-, middle-, and low-income countries. It is expected to eliminate about 90% of the tariffs on imports between its signatories within 20 years of coming into force, and establish common rules for e-commerce, trade, and intellectual property. Several analysts predicted that it would offer significant economic gains for signatory nations, boost post-pandemic economic recovery, as well as "pull the economic centre of gravity back towards Asia, with China poised to take the lead in writing trade rules for the region," leaving the U.S. behind in economic and political affairs. Reactions from others were neutral or negative, with some analysts saying that the economic gains from the trade deal would be modest. The RCEP has been criticized for ignoring labor, human rights, and environmental sustainability issues.
Tuesday, April 29, 2014
1962-2-7 Cuban Crisis & JFK - 1962, 7 Feb
Monday, April 28, 2014
Saturday, April 26, 2014
●τ 1965
65-3-25 Selma to Montgomery March ..
1965-4-8 ⇒ 1967-7-1 Merger Treaty = unified the executive institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) and the Economic Community (EEC). This treaty is regarded by some as the real beginning of the modern European Union.
65-3-25 Selma to Montgomery March
.25th March 1965: The Selma to Montgomery March to Alabama State Capitol - HiPo > .
Although the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended legal segregation, many Southern states continued to suppress black voter registration. In Alabama’s Dallas County, where Selma was the county seat, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee led a voter registration campaign that faced increasingly violent resistance from local law enforcement under County Sheriff Jim Clark. On 18 February 1965, African-American demonstrator Jimmie Lee Jackson was fatally shot by a state trooper after a civil rights march. This prompted activists to organize a march from Selma to Montgomery, the state capital.
Approximately 600 marchers departed Selma on the morning of Sunday 7 March. However, at the Edmund Pettus Bridge they found a large group of state troopers and local police who launched a ferocious attack that became known as ‘Bloody Sunday’.
Two days later, on ‘Turnaround Tuesday’, the number of marchers had grown to around 2,500 people. To avoid breaking a temporary restraining order against further demonstrations, Martin Luther King, Jr stopped the demonstration at the bridge before turning back to Selma. Nevertheless that evening a young white minister who joined with the marchers was beaten and later died.
On 15 March President Johnson pledged his support for the protestors and called for voting rights legislation. Six days later the third and final march departed Selma, protected by U.S. Army troops and federalized Alabama National Guardsmen. They arrived in Montgomery on 25 March, where King made his ‘How Long, Not Long’ speech to a crowd of more than 25,000 people. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed by Congress in August.
Approximately 600 marchers departed Selma on the morning of Sunday 7 March. However, at the Edmund Pettus Bridge they found a large group of state troopers and local police who launched a ferocious attack that became known as ‘Bloody Sunday’.
Two days later, on ‘Turnaround Tuesday’, the number of marchers had grown to around 2,500 people. To avoid breaking a temporary restraining order against further demonstrations, Martin Luther King, Jr stopped the demonstration at the bridge before turning back to Selma. Nevertheless that evening a young white minister who joined with the marchers was beaten and later died.
On 15 March President Johnson pledged his support for the protestors and called for voting rights legislation. Six days later the third and final march departed Selma, protected by U.S. Army troops and federalized Alabama National Guardsmen. They arrived in Montgomery on 25 March, where King made his ‘How Long, Not Long’ speech to a crowd of more than 25,000 people. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed by Congress in August.
Friday, April 25, 2014
66 Korean DMZ Conflict 69
Thursday, April 24, 2014
Wednesday, April 23, 2014
Tuesday, April 22, 2014
69-6-28 Stonewall Riots
.28th June 1969: Stonewall Riots in Greenwich Village - HiPo > .
Lavender Scare ..
28th June 1969: The Stonewall Riots begin when NYPD raid the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village:
In 1969 it was illegal to engage in homosexual behavior in public, which included holding hands, kissing, or dancing with someone of the same sex. Members of the LGBT community consequently socialized in gay bars that were frequently raided by the police. The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village had been turned in to a gay bar by the Mafia with the hope that they could profit from offering ‘protection’ to the patrons, while paying off the police to ensure they could continue operating even without a liquor license.
By 1969 the bar had become incredibly popular, especially as it was the only establishment in the city that allowed gay men to dance together. However it also attracted a lot of attention from the police’s Public Morals Squad who frequently raided the city’s gay bars and arrested patrons and employees alike.
In the early hours of 28 June, police officers raided the Stonewall Inn. While they attempted to arrest employees and patrons suspected of cross-dressing, around another 200 customers were released from the bar only to congregate outside on Christopher Street. Scuffles between the patrons and the police soon turned into a full-scale riot, as the community’s longstanding anger exploded.
Unaccustomed to such a violent response, the police retreated back inside the bar. The building was smashed up and set alight and, despite the arrival of riot police, it wasn’t until 4 a.m. that the situation began to calm down. Nevertheless, rioting continued for another five nights and acted as a catalyst for LGBT political activism. Just a year later the first gay pride marches took place, marking the first anniversary of the Stonewall Riots.
In 1969 it was illegal to engage in homosexual behavior in public, which included holding hands, kissing, or dancing with someone of the same sex. Members of the LGBT community consequently socialized in gay bars that were frequently raided by the police. The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village had been turned in to a gay bar by the Mafia with the hope that they could profit from offering ‘protection’ to the patrons, while paying off the police to ensure they could continue operating even without a liquor license.
By 1969 the bar had become incredibly popular, especially as it was the only establishment in the city that allowed gay men to dance together. However it also attracted a lot of attention from the police’s Public Morals Squad who frequently raided the city’s gay bars and arrested patrons and employees alike.
In the early hours of 28 June, police officers raided the Stonewall Inn. While they attempted to arrest employees and patrons suspected of cross-dressing, around another 200 customers were released from the bar only to congregate outside on Christopher Street. Scuffles between the patrons and the police soon turned into a full-scale riot, as the community’s longstanding anger exploded.
Unaccustomed to such a violent response, the police retreated back inside the bar. The building was smashed up and set alight and, despite the arrival of riot police, it wasn’t until 4 a.m. that the situation began to calm down. Nevertheless, rioting continued for another five nights and acted as a catalyst for LGBT political activism. Just a year later the first gay pride marches took place, marking the first anniversary of the Stonewall Riots.
69-3-2 Sino-Soviet border conflict 69-9-11
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History of the Cold War: Every Month - Dec '45 to Dec '91 > .Berlin Wall: Escaping for Freedom and Love - Geographics > .
Monday, April 21, 2014
Isdal Woman
.Isdal Woman: A Cold War Murder Mystery - Biog > .
The Isdal Woman (Norwegian: Isdalskvinnen) is a placeholder name given to an unidentified woman who was found dead at Isdalen ("Ice Valley") in Bergen, Norway, on 29 November 1970. Although police at the time ruled a verdict of likely suicide, the nature of the case encouraged speculation and ongoing investigation in the years since. Nearly half a century later, it remains one of the most profound Cold War mysteries in Norwegian history.
In 2018, NRK and the BBC published a podcast series titled Death in Ice Valley, which included interviews with eyewitnesses and forensic scientists, also suggesting that the Isdal Woman's birthplace may have been southern Germany or the French-German border region, and that she was likely born c. 1930 (±4 years). She was also likely raised in French-speaking Belgium.
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Many questions remain unanswered about the case, especially the reasons for the woman's many identities and unexplained travel plans. Multiple investigations point to the possibility that she was a spy, given the Cold War context of the time. Norway had also experienced other strange disappearances in the 1960s, close to military installations, which also traced back to international espionage. The declassified records of the Norwegian Armed Forces also reveal that many of the woman's movements seem to correspond to top secret trials of the Penguin missile. A fisherman is also reported to have recognised the unknown woman while observing military movements in Stavanger. The possession of nine fake passports also imply the involvement of a very professional organization. Similarly, counter-intelligence activities by Mossad in Europe at the time may also be linked...
In 2017, stable isotope analysis of the woman's teeth (taken from her unburied jawbone[) indicated that the woman had been born in about 1930 in or near Nuremberg, Germany, but had moved to France or the France–Germany border as a child. This reinforced earlier analysis of her handwriting, which suggested that she had been educated in France or a neighbouring country. Analysis also indicated she had been to a dentist in either East Asia, Central Europe, Southern Europe or South America.In 2018, NRK and the BBC published a podcast series titled Death in Ice Valley, which included interviews with eyewitnesses and forensic scientists, also suggesting that the Isdal Woman's birthplace may have been southern Germany or the French-German border region, and that she was likely born c. 1930 (±4 years). She was also likely raised in French-speaking Belgium.
Friday, April 18, 2014
73-1-15 Vietnam Cease Fire
On January 15, 1973, President Nixon announced a suspension of offensive actions against North Vietnam. Dr. Henry Kissinger and chief Hanoi negotiator Le Duc Tho met on January 29, 1973.
Wednesday, April 16, 2014
Saturday, April 12, 2014
1979-2-17 Sino-Vietnamese War 1979-3-16
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Looking Back at the Sino-Vietnamese War - Asianometry > .China vs. Vietnam: the New Race of the Century - VisPol > .History of Vietnam (All Vietnamese dynasties) - Epimetheus > .
China-India War (1962) - Wars of 20th Century > .
On the CCP - Asianometry >> .
>> Asianometry >>
On 6 March, China declared that the gate to Hanoi was open and that their punitive mission had been achieved. During the withdrawal, the PLA used scorched-earth policy, destroying local infrastructure and looting useful equipment and resources (including livestock), this severely weakened the economy of Vietnam's northernmost provinces. The PLA crossed the border back into China on 16 March. Both sides declared victory with China claiming to have crushed the Vietnamese resistance and Vietnam claiming to have repelled the invasion using mostly border militias. ... Had the PLA decided to attack Hanoi, the PLA would have suffered huge losses.
The Sino-Vietnamese War (中越战争) was a border war fought between China and Vietnam in early 1979. China launched an offensive in response to Vietnam's actions against the Khmer Rouge in 1978, which ended the rule of the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge. Both China and Vietnam claimed victory in the last of the Indochina Wars.
China and Vietnam each lost thousands of troops, and China lost 3.45 billion yuan in overhead, which delayed completion of their 1979–80 economic plan.
On 1 March 2005, Howard W. French wrote in The New York Times: Some historians stated that "the war was started by Mr. Deng (China's then paramount leader Deng Xiaoping) to keep the army preoccupied while he consolidated power..."
As Vietnamese troops remained in Cambodia until 1989, China was unsuccessful in its goal of dissuading Vietnam from involvement in Cambodia. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Sino-Vietnamese border was finalized. Although unable to deter Vietnam from ousting Pol Pot from Cambodia, China demonstrated that its Cold War communist adversary, the Soviet Union, was unable to protect its Vietnamese ally.
Wednesday, April 9, 2014
1982-6-30 ERA fails
The original ERA, first proposed in 1923, was known as the “Lucretia Mott Amendment.”
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex. It seeks to end the legal distinctions between men and women in matters of divorce, property, employment, and other matters. The first version of an ERA was written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman and introduced in Congress in December 1923.
On March 22, 1972, the 1943 version of the ERA finally passed the Senate and the House of Representatives by the required two-thirds majority and was sent to the states for ratification. An original seven-year deadline was later extended by Congress to June 30, 1982. When this deadline expired, only 35 of the necessary 38 states (the constitutionally required three-fourths) had ratified the amendment. The ERA was therefore not yet a part of the U.S. Constitution.
The 15 states whose legislatures did not ratify the Equal Rights Amendment by the 1982 deadline are: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Utah, and Virginia.
In the 2010s, due in part to fourth-wave feminism and the Me Too movement, interest in getting the ERA adopted was revived. In 2017, Nevada became the first state to ratify the ERA after the expiration of both deadlines, and Illinois followed in 2018. In 2020, Virginia's General Assembly passed a ratification resolution for the ERA, claiming to bring the number of ratifications to 38. However, experts and advocates have acknowledged legal uncertainty about the consequences of the Virginian ratification, due to expired deadlines and five states' revocations.
2020-1-15 Virginia Approves the E.R.A., Becoming the 38th State to Back It: Virginia’s move is symbolic, and crosses the threshold of three-quarters of states needed for ratification. Yet the fate of the E.R.A. is far from decided.
Phyllis Schlafly’s Lasting [Negative] Legacy in Defeating the E.R.A. .
82-4-2 Falklands War 82-6-14
1982-4-2 Why the Falklands Conflict happened - IWM > .
Falklands Conflict - Imperial War Museums >> .
The conflict began on 2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands, followed by the invasion of South Georgia the next day. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force before making an amphibious assault on the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with an Argentine surrender on 14 June, returning the islands to British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities.
The conflict was a major episode in the protracted dispute over the territories' sovereignty. Argentina asserted (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory. The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty. Neither state officially declared war, although both governments declared the Islands a war zone.
The conflict has had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the unfavourable outcome prompted large protests against the ruling military government, hastening its downfall and the democratisation of the country. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative government, bolstered by the successful outcome, was re-elected with an increased majority the following year. The cultural and political effect of the conflict has been less in the UK than in Argentina, where it has remained a common topic for discussion.
Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, at which the two governments issued a joint statement. No change in either country's position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit. In 1994, Argentina adopted a new Constitution, which declared the Falkland Islands as part of one of its provinces by law. However, the islands continue to operate as a self-governing British Overseas Territory.
The Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) was a ten-week undeclared war between Argentina and the United Kingdom in 1982 over two British dependent territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands and its territorial dependency, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.
The conflict began on 2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands, followed by the invasion of South Georgia the next day. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force before making an amphibious assault on the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with an Argentine surrender on 14 June, returning the islands to British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities.
The conflict was a major episode in the protracted dispute over the territories' sovereignty. Argentina asserted (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory. The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty. Neither state officially declared war, although both governments declared the Islands a war zone.
The conflict has had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the unfavourable outcome prompted large protests against the ruling military government, hastening its downfall and the democratisation of the country. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative government, bolstered by the successful outcome, was re-elected with an increased majority the following year. The cultural and political effect of the conflict has been less in the UK than in Argentina, where it has remained a common topic for discussion.
Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, at which the two governments issued a joint statement. No change in either country's position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit. In 1994, Argentina adopted a new Constitution, which declared the Falkland Islands as part of one of its provinces by law. However, the islands continue to operate as a self-governing British Overseas Territory.
Sunday, April 6, 2014
Saturday, April 5, 2014
Wednesday, April 2, 2014
Tuesday, April 1, 2014
1990-10-3 German Reunification
.3rd October 1990: Reunification of East and West Germany - HiPo > .Berlin Wall: A stroke of fate that changed history - DW > .
The Berlin Wall (1961-1989) - Simple > .
Communist Hungary had opened its border with Austria in September, and this had encouraged East Germans to push for reform in their own country. Weekly ‘Monday protests’ attracted hundreds of thousands of people and eventually forced the government to prepare a new travel policy.
Although the new policy had been agreed by the Politburo on the afternoon of 9 November, their intention was to implement it the next day so that border guards could be briefed and crossings managed in a controlled manner. However, Schabowski had not been at the Politburo meeting and so was only able to base his announcement on notes from a piece of paper handed to him shortly before the press conference. This explains his mistake over the timing of its introduction.
The announcement led huge crowds to begin gathering at the checkpoints. Surprised border guards, who had been given no information about the new rules, were overwhelmed by the appearance of thousands of East Germans who wanted to cross. Although the border remained closed for around three hours, by 11pm the checkpoint at Bornholmer Strasse had been opened. Others followed soon after.
West Berliners still had to have a visa in order to cross to the East. Therefore, for a few weeks after the Wall was opened, East Berliners actually had greater freedom of movement than their West German counterparts.
Large cracks had begun to show in East Germany’s communist regime from the middle of 1989 and eventually led to the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. This encouraged the ongoing Peaceful Revolution in the East, which succeeded in bringing about free elections in March the following year.
The West German Chancellor, Helmut Kohl, had already called for greater cooperation between West and East in November 1989. Furthermore the election of the new East German parliament, known as the Volkskammer, in March 1990 ensured that both sides now had governments who were considering reunification.
The GDR’s economy had begun to collapse as the structures of communist control were removed. The replacement of the East German Mark with West Germany’s Deutsche Mark as the official currency in June ensured a secure economic framework for political union.
By the end of August the Volkskammer had passed a resolution in favour of reunification and signed the German Reunification Treaty. This was approved by large majorities in the legislative chambers of each country on 20 September, and at midnight on 3 October the black, red and gold flag of West Germany was raised above the Brandenburg Gate which had previously divided the two sides.
3 October is now an official public holiday in Germany, and is known as The Day of German Unity.
Although the new policy had been agreed by the Politburo on the afternoon of 9 November, their intention was to implement it the next day so that border guards could be briefed and crossings managed in a controlled manner. However, Schabowski had not been at the Politburo meeting and so was only able to base his announcement on notes from a piece of paper handed to him shortly before the press conference. This explains his mistake over the timing of its introduction.
The announcement led huge crowds to begin gathering at the checkpoints. Surprised border guards, who had been given no information about the new rules, were overwhelmed by the appearance of thousands of East Germans who wanted to cross. Although the border remained closed for around three hours, by 11pm the checkpoint at Bornholmer Strasse had been opened. Others followed soon after.
West Berliners still had to have a visa in order to cross to the East. Therefore, for a few weeks after the Wall was opened, East Berliners actually had greater freedom of movement than their West German counterparts.
The West German Chancellor, Helmut Kohl, had already called for greater cooperation between West and East in November 1989. Furthermore the election of the new East German parliament, known as the Volkskammer, in March 1990 ensured that both sides now had governments who were considering reunification.
The GDR’s economy had begun to collapse as the structures of communist control were removed. The replacement of the East German Mark with West Germany’s Deutsche Mark as the official currency in June ensured a secure economic framework for political union.
By the end of August the Volkskammer had passed a resolution in favour of reunification and signed the German Reunification Treaty. This was approved by large majorities in the legislative chambers of each country on 20 September, and at midnight on 3 October the black, red and gold flag of West Germany was raised above the Brandenburg Gate which had previously divided the two sides.
3 October is now an official public holiday in Germany, and is known as The Day of German Unity.
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igitur quī dēsīderat pācem praeparet bellum
igitur quī dēsīderat pācem praeparet bellum therefore, he who desires peace, let him prepare for war sī vīs pācem, parā bellum if you wan...
