Stay Behinds

.Stay Behind Organizations: Training and Exercises - Cold War > .

Operation Gladio: How the West Wanted to Defend against the USSR - Cold War > .

Operation Gladio: the unholy alliance between the Vatican, CIA, and Mafia (1) > .

Operation Gladio: the unholy alliance between the Vatican, CIA, and Mafia (2) > .

American Sponsored Anti-Soviet Alliances in Asia and Oceania - Cold War > .

NATO's Secret Army in Switzerland, Austria, Sweden and Finland - Cold War > .

Anti-Soviet Secret Armies in W. Europe - Cold War > .

22-9-25 Inside the CIA’s top secret museum – BBC > .

Cold War mapped - '45-'91 ..

DARPA

.

How DARPA is creating the impossible | Arati Prabhakar - TED Arch > .

> DEWs - Directed Energy Weapons >>  

24-2-19 Laser 7 Microwave Weapons - DEW Programs, Potential, Issues - Perun > .

...

24-4-16 NVGs - Performance of Army's $60,000 Combat Goggles - T&P > .

23-10-17 Xina's Intellectual Property Theft | Five Eyes Leaders - Hoover > .

23-9-24 Combat Drones & Future Air Warfare - Humans + Wingman - Perun > .

23-9-7 Pentagon announces Replicator cheap-AI-drone program vs Xina - Binkov > .

23-8-29 Understanding the Limits of Innovation || Peter Zeihan >> .

23-8-21 Blackbird SR-71 – Fastest Cold War Spy Plane - Forces > .

23-8-12 DARPA - robots, technologies, advanced US research | Pro > .

23-7-28 Why America Needs a Space Force - McBeth > .

23-6-30 Directed Energy Weapons - Lasers vs Drones, Missiles - T&P > .

23-6-18 Procurement vs Efficacy - Requirements, R&D pitfalls - Perun > .

23-6-13 Drones and the Dystopian Future of War - Journeyman > .

2013 Rise of the Drones (FULL doc) | NOVA | PBS > .

Kelly Johnson and Skunk Works. The genius who changed aviation > .

Skunk Works: The Dream Factory for War - Mega > .

('91+) Lockheed & Skunk Works History: Electra, SR-71 Blackbird, F-22 - Scapes > .

AI + Robotics - Talus >> .

Autonomous & Multi-Domain Warfare - Talus Gort >> .

Innovation, Ingenuity, Regulation - Talus >> .

Marine Robotics - Talus >> .

Military Drones - Talus >> .

Military Robotics - Talus >> .

Future Air Power ..

Innovation, Invention ↠ 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is a research and development agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military.

Originally known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the agency was created on February 7, 1958 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957. By collaborating with academia, industry, and government partners, DARPA formulates and executes research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, often beyond immediate U.S. military requirements.

DARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and the basis for the modern Internet, and graphical user interfaces in information technology.

DARPA is independent of other military research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA comprises approximately 220 government employees in six technical offices, including nearly 100 program managers, who together oversee about 250 research and development programs.

The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996. The agency's current director, appointed in March 2021, is Stefanie Tompkins.

40-5-10 Churchill's new war cabinet

40-5-10 Churchill's New War Cabinet > . 
Britain Stops Trying to Appease Hitler; Turns to Churchill > . 

Life of Winston Churchill - Timeline > .

Winston Churchill's War - BBC doc > .

1934 jajn

Nazification of Germany - Creates Third Reich | B2W I 1934 1/4 > .
Interbellum - Germany - RaWa >> . 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934 

1925-8-8 KKK march, Washington DC

8th August 1925: > 50K Ku Klux Klan members march in Washington D.C. - HiPo > .

Although the original Ku Klux Klan had collapsed in the 1870s, by the middle of the 1920s a new version of the organisation had experienced a resurgence that saw at least three million Americans becoming members. The second Klan was heavily influenced by the mythologised history of the D. W. Griffith 1915 silent film The Birth of a Nation. With its white robes and cross burnings, the Klan adhered to a nativist agenda that opposed anything and anyone that didn’t fit into their white Protestant ideal such as blacks, Catholics, Jews, and newly-arrived Southern and Eastern European immigrants.

The Klan of the 1920s was also very visible in the community, with the high water mark of the organisation being its march in Washington D.C. in the summer of 1925. Known as a konklave, an estimated 50,000 Klansmen and their families converged on the city for two days of very public demonstration. On 8 August upwards of half the attendees participated in a march through the streets of the capital wearing their full regalia, their faces on show rather than hidden beneath pointed hoods at the behest of the city’s authorities.

Some of the marchers formed well-drilled shapes that were visible from above – Christian crosses and moving white K’s – that were witnessed by thousands of spectators who had come to watch the parade, or demonstrate against the presence of the Klan. While Marines stood guard outside several federal buildings that lined Pennsylvania Avenue, President Calvin Coolidge reportedly refused to review the procession. The marchers eventually arrived at the Washington Monument at 7pm, but the rally was rained off.

Servicewomen in WWI - USA

.Museum Minute: Women in WWI > .

SS Women

.

SS Women - Female Concentration Camp Guards - wsmf > .
Ilse Koch: The Bitch of Buchenwald - Bio > .

War Crimes Trial: Buchenwald (Ilsa Koch) - German - RHJc > .

24-5-25 Why We Cannot [Easily] Stop Dictators - Versed > . 

23-12-17 [Authoritarian Societies] Psychology of Violence (subs) - Katz > .

23-12-16 Simulating the Evolution of Teamwork - Primer > .

Abnormality Genes -- Addiction, Aggression, Anxiety →

Authoritarian Extremism ..

Human Propensity for Belligerence .. 
SS Women .. 

SyE - Syndrome E ..

Violence Theory - Brutalized Culture ..

1908-1-24 "Scouting for Boys"

1908-1-24: Robert Baden-Powell publishes Scouting for Boys > .

Cultural shifts & Baden-Powell's Boy Scouts - WW2 > .

Robert Baden-Powell had become a national hero as a result of his successful defence of the South African town of Mafeking during the Second Boer War. Baden-Powell’s garrison survived the 217-day siege in part thanks to his recruitment of boys aged 12–15 who were trained to form the Mafeking Cadet Corps.

On his return to England, Baden-Powell found that his military field manual Aids to Scouting had found an audience amongst teachers and youth organisations who had begun to use it to train boys in skills such as tracking and observation. Encouraged by his friends, and inspired by Ernest Thompson Seton’s The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians, Baden-Powell subsequently decided to write a non-military version of his book specifically for boys.

Before Scouting for Boys was published, Baden-Powell first tested his approach with a diverse group of 21 boys on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour, Dorset. The week-long camp in the summer on 1907 saw the first trials of what was to become the Patrol System as Baden-Powell and his assistants taught the boys a broad range of skills such as woodcraft, observation, and lifesaving techniques.

Following the success of the Brownsea camp, Scouting for Boys was published in six fortnightly instalments by Baden-Powell’s friend, the newspaper magnate Sir Arthur Pearson. Beginning on 24 January 1908, it proved to be an immediate sensation and, within a matter months, Scout Troops had begun to form throughout Britain and its empire. The six instalments were then combined into a single book that went on sale in May and, with regular revisions, it has become one of the best-selling books of all time.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Baden-Powell,_1st_Baron_Baden-Powell .

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouting_for_Boys . 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scout_Association . 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouting .

1908-1-24 "Scouting for Boys" ..  

1910-2-8 Boy Scouts of America ..

1919-2-8 Boy Scouts of America

.8th February 1910: Boy Scouts of America, William D. Boyce in Washington D.C. > .

Boyce was born in Pennsylvania, and became a successful newspaper publisher who eventually settled in Illinois. By the early 1900s he had successfully delegated the day-to-day running of his many businesses, and focused his own energies on financing and participating in foreign expeditions.

In 1909, while undertaking a trip to Europe ahead of a safari in British East Africa, Boyce stopped in London. Legend says that he got lost on foggy street, and was assisted by an unknown member of the Scout movement that had grown following the publication of the book Scouting for Boys by British Army officer Robert Baden-Powell. The unknown Scout refused a tip, saying he was only doing his duty, and soon afterwards took Boyce to meet with Baden-Powell himself.

In reality the day wasn’t foggy, the scout only helped him cross the road to his hotel, and Boyce didn’t meet with Baden-Powell. Nevertheless he was still so impressed by the encounter that he obtained a copy of Scouting for Boys to read while in Africa, and cancelled his planned round-the-world voyage so that he could return to London after the expedition to learn more about the organization.

On his return to America, Boyce was inspired to organize the Boy Scouts of America. After discussions with Colin H. Livingstone, a railroad executive who would go on to become the first national president of the new organization, Boyce agreed to incorporate it in Washington D.C. The men hoped that this would send a message of the national scope of the BSA. Although the organization’s numbers have fallen in recent years, it still has an estimated 2.2 million members.

1908-1-24 "Scouting for Boys" ..  

1910-2-8 Boy Scouts of America ..

Endell Street Military Hospital - WW1

Spanish Flu Influenza Pandemic 1918 - 1920 - tgw > .

The Women Doctors Who Fought to Serve in World War I:

“No Man’s Land” tells the story of the Endell Street Military Hospital, which treated the casualties of war pouring into London during World War I — and which, except for the occasional male orderly, was staffed entirely by women.
...
This was as shocking as it was revolutionary. Women doctors were almost unheard-of. Barred from studying at most institutions except for the London School of Medicine for Women, they were relegated to low-status, low-paying jobs in schools, prisons and asylums; most treated only other women and children. None of the men who would come to the Endell Street hospital had ever been treated by a woman before.

Two pioneering doctors — Louisa Garrett Anderson, a 41-year-old surgeon whose mother, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, was the first woman ever to qualify as a doctor in Britain, and Flora Murray, 45, an exacting Scottish anesthesiologist — saw a vacuum, and rushed to fill it. The upending of conventions necessitated by the war, as well as the desperate need for new hospital beds to treat the tens of thousands of injured and sick soldiers converging on London, offered the perfect opportunity to prove that women were equal to men.

Both women were also passionate suffragists, and the struggle for the vote went hand in hand with the struggle for professional acceptance. (They also lived together, though their careers were so interesting that their sex lives seem almost beside the point.)

...

The first casualties arrived in May, 1915, in convoys of up to 80 men at a time; by the end of the first week, all 520 beds were filled. Typically, between 400 and 800 new patients would arrive each month, many needing immediate surgery (much of it performed by Anderson), many with grievously infected wounds, many suffering from acute shell-shock, “more wounded in their minds than in their bodies.”

...

Exhausted, worked to the bone, forced to improvise and develop new techniques on the fly, the women proved themselves capable of handling nearly everything thrown at them during the war. The Spanish flu brought them to the point of despair. It came in three waves during 1918 and 1919 and killed between 3 and 6 percent of the world’s population.

Medical | Endell Street Military Hospital ..

Medical Education

.

Partial colectomy for carcinoma of the rectum (Bart's, 1933) > .

Sir Charles Gordon Watson: At St Bartholomew's Hospital Watson had been elected assistant surgeon in 1910. He became surgeon after the war, and was elected consulting surgeon and a governor on his retirement in 1934. He was surgeon to the Metropolitan Hospital, where he became president of the Aesculapian Society, to St Mark's Hospital for Diseases of the Rectum, and to St Andrew's Hospital, Dollis Hill. He was a popular lecturer at St Bartholomew's, and an active supporter of student clubs. Ball, Sir William Girling (1881 - 1945) .

Videos of 1930s Surgeries on the Brain, Belly and Tonsils .

>> Wellcome Library playlists >>

Medical Education
De Humani Corporis Fabrica - Vesalius (1543) ..
Medical Texts (1858+) ..

House officer (previously often called a houseman) may refer to:

• Foundation house officer, a doctor in the first two years after qualification in a United Kingdom hospital, undergoing the postgraduate Foundation Programme
• Pre-registration house officer, a United Kingdom hospital doctor in the first year after qualification, phased out in 2005
• A physician (one who holds the degree of M.D., D.O., MBBS, MBChB, or BMed) undergoing residency training.
• Senior house officer, a hospital doctor in Ireland during the second and third years after qualification; formerly used in the United Kingdom but phased out in 2005

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_school_in_the_United_Kingdom

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-registration_house_officer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_officer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residency_(medicine)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialist_registrar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_practitioner#United_Kingdom

UCL Medical School is the medical school of University College London (UCL) and is located in London, United Kingdom. The School provides a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate medical education programmes and also has a medical education research unit and an education consultancy unit.

UCL has offered education in medicine since 1834. The currently configured and titled medical school was established in 2008 following mergers between UCLH Medical School and the medical school of the Middlesex Hospital (in 1987) and The Royal Free Hospital Medical School (in 1998).

The School's clinical teaching is primarily conducted at University College Hospital, The Royal Free Hospital and the Whittington Hospital, with other associated teaching hospitals including the Eastman Dental Hospital, Great Ormond Street Hospital, Moorfields Eye Hospital, the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery and the Royal National Throat, Nose and Ear Hospital, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital and Luton and Dunstable University Hospital.

The School is currently ranked 4th in the UK by the Complete University Guide 2016, 3rd by the Guardian University Guide 2016, and 10th in the world by the QS World University Rankings.
New:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_doctor .

Military Casualties

Medical Treatment in WW1 > .
Shell Shock - The Psychological Scars of WW1 > .

Canadian - Casualty Clearing Station > .
Newsreels (Canadian Army) > .

Antiseptic Surgery - Joseph Lister ..
Endell Street Military Hospital - WW1 ..

Hospital Ships ..  

Medical | Endell Street Military Hospital .. 

Medical Services .. 

Military Casualties .. 

Timeline of medicine and medical technology ..

WW1 evolution - engineering, medicine, military, technology ..

Kate Warne, Detective

Kate Warne: America's First Female Detective, Pinkerton Agency > . 

Kate Warne (1833 – January 28, 1868) was the first female detective, from 1856 to 1868 (her death), in the Pinkerton Detective Agency and the United States.

...

Warne reported back to Pinkerton about all her work when he was away from the office and they worked together, on numerous cases, during their tenure. Pinkerton constantly showed a deep trust in the work that Warne performed and acknowledges so in his memoirs. She was in charge of the Female Detective Bureau established by Pinkerton, her title being Supervisor of Women Agents.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Warne 

Buttonwood Agreement → NYSE, May 17 1792

.17th May 1792: Buttonwood Agreement → New York Stock Exchange - HiPo > .

In March and April 1792, barely a year after the creation of the Bank of the United States, a financial panic rocked confidence in the fledging American economy. Easy credit, combined with rampant speculation by bankers such as William Duer and Alexander Macomb, led to an unsustainable rise in the price of securities that inevitably plummeted. Without any safeguards in place, and at a time when securities were often bought and sold in auction houses with unpredictable prices and high commissions, public confidence in the market plummeted.

In the midst of the panic of 1792, a group of 24 brokers and merchants met to discuss possible regulations in an attempt to restore trust in the securities business. On 17 May they met again to sign the Buttonwood Agreement, named after the buttonwood tree in New York City’s Wall Street where they traditionally met to conduct their trades.

The Buttonwood Agreement was significant for two regulatory reasons. Firstly, the brokers guaranteed that they would not try to undercut each other by setting a fixed floor commission rate of 0.25%. This reduced the risk of manipulative pricing and competition between brokers. Secondly, the signatories agreed to only ever trade with each other, closing the system to outsiders who might be less scrupulous. With the knowledge that every broker operated by the same rules, they could trust that the market prices were fair and that deals would be honored. These original New York stockbrokers traded from the Tontine Coffee House at 82 Wall Street before moving to their first dedicated trading space in 1817.

Pakistan - Troubled Region

23-5-12 Pakistan is dying ⇒ global problem - Caspian > .

> Afghanistan >>  >> Afghanistan >>>

24-6-21 [Aghanistan Conflicts: Tribalism, Water Conflict, Georivalry] - Real > .

24-1-2 Stans: Why Central Asia Is So Big Yet So Weak - Versed > .

23-12-1 Khorasan: Taliban vs ISIS K - Afghanistan still at war - Caspian > .

23-10-15 Special Operators - Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) - Waro > .

23-10-10 Hamas: Gazan terrorist militants behind atrocities in Israel | ABC > .

23-9-22 75-Yr Conflict India (+USSR) vs Pakistan (+USA) vs Kashmir (+X) - gtbt > .

23-8-21 India’s HUGE water problem will cause a HUGE migration problem - GG > .

23-7-15 Why Pakistan's on the Brink of Collapse - T&P > .

22-8-22 Does Afghanistan have a future? - Caspian Report > .

War In Afghanistan 2001+ | Timeline British Troops | Forces > .

2021 Logistics of Evacuating Kabul - Wendover > .

2021 Can Turkey Expand Its Influence to Central Asia [Stans]? - Mad > .

20-7-28 When Pakistan tried to become a superpower - CaRe > .

20-4-30 Why Pakistan's Geography Sucks - Real > .

> Pakistan >> vs > India >>

24-10-27 Pakistan's Oil Discovery Could Impact Global Markets - Caspian > .

> Russo-Xina Axis >>

Stateless Nations 

Stateless Nations - Hindsight >> .

24-7-15 Xina is 'masterful' at getting what they need from P00ti | Frontline > .

24-7-4 [P00pet+Xi + -Stans -Modious] SCO - Update > .

Central Asian -Stans - Present Tense >> .

In the 1990s [post-USSR], Pakistan took upon itself to revive its ancient links with Central Asia, and in the process reconfigure itself as a superstate. [Pakistan vs Afghanistan vs Bangladesh vs India; stans; Islam]

Afghanistan - Graveyard of Empires trope - anf >> .

Central Asian -Stans - Present Tense >> .

Afghanistan - Graydations >> .

Talibanistan - Auver Durer >> .

Afghanistan & Troubled Stans - Rise >> .

Afghanistan Conflicts - Compass >> .

Afghanistan - Forces News >> .

Afghanistan crisis - BBC >> .

Afghanistan falls to the Taliban - Washington Post >> .

φ8 2021+ Hegemonic Struggles - anffyddiaeth >> .

Taliban Takes Over Afghanistan - Bloomberg Politics >> .

Afghanistan-The Great Game - M K >> .

Afghanistan 🇦🇫 - Kaptain Smurf >> .

Afghanistan ..

Afghanistan - Imminent Descent ..

Afghanistan - Progress to Failed State ..

Afghanistan's Mineral Wealth ..

Pakistan + Χί ➾ India 2022 ..

SA-T Soviet–Afghan War ⇒ Taliban ..

Talibanistan, Tribalism, Terrorism ..

Afghanistan and the Failure of Liberal Interventionism .

>> Balance of Power >>

Balance of Power = Geoeconomics, Geopolitics, Military alliances

BoP - Africa - BPow >> .
BoP - Americas - BPow >> .

BoP - Arctic, Antarctic - BPow >> .BoP - Asia - BPow >> .

BoP - Asymmetric Warfare - Lies & Spies - BPow >> .
BoP - Autocracy, Monarchy, Corruption - BPow >> .

BoP - Balkans, Ukraine, Russia - BPow >> .
BoP - BRICS - BPow >> .
BoP - China, NATO, Russia - BPow >> .
BoP - Country Superlatives - BPow >> .

BoP - Economics, Geoeconomics - BPow >> .

BoP - EU, NATO, UN - BPow >> .
BoP - History of Revolutions - BPow >> .

BoP - Middle East, Russia - BPow >> .

BoP - NATO vs Russia - BPow >> .
BoP - Nordic, Baltic, NATO - BPow >> .
BoP - Pacific, South China Sea - BPow >> .
BoP - Politics, Geopolitics - BPow >> .
BoP - War - Failure of Diplomacy - BPow >> .
BoP - Worst & Weakest - BPow >> .

Geography~Politics = Regional geographic challenges, Geoeconomics, Geopolitics

GeoPol - Africa - BPow >> .

GeoPol - Americas, Atlantic, Arctic - BPow >> .GeoPol - Asia & Pacific - BPow >> .
GeoPol - Europe & Nordic - BPow >> .

GeoPol - Middle East, Stans - BPow >> .

European Relationships

22-9-7 Intermarium - Poland Ukraine Baltics | George Friedman > .

25-4-26 France After Macron - A New Republic? - EUMS > .

24-3-28 Reasons Lithuanians Dislike Ruscians (Konstantin) - Explained > .

23-10-23 Poland Must Defend Ukraine against Historical Rival: Russia - GeoP > .

23-9-20 UK ‘could join’ a two-tiered EU, even after Brexit | Olivier Costa > .

23-8-31 Arming against P00tin - NATO in Baltic Sea | DW Doc > .

23-8-20 NATO's Rearmament & Spending - NATO's R-U Response - Perun > .

23-8-2 Belarussian Choppers cross Polish Border into NATO Airspace | Artur > .

23-6-4 Freedom for Belarus tied to Freedom for Ukraine - Perspective > .

23-5-14 French Defence Strategy & Rearmament - strategic autonomy, Hx - Perun > .

23-1-30 Poland is militarising so fast it’s scary! - Artur > .

23-1-3 Macron's Neo-Gaullism - plans for hegemony - Caspian Report > .

22-12-30 Most disappointing politicians - VisPol > .

22-12-30 Suwalki Gap: NATO's Weakest Point? | BFBS > .

22-7-26 France's Hx & Geostrategic Choices in Central Europe - gtbt > .

22-7-22 Poland could become strongest land force in the EU - Binkov > .

22-7-21 Why Every NATO Member Joined (Why Others Haven't) - Spaniel > .

22-7-4 Intermarium: Is Strongest Union In Europe About To Appear? - Complete > .

22-5-9 Macron's Plan to Revive France - VisPol > .

22-4-20 Suwalki Gap - Lithuania strengthens forces b/o Russia | DW > .

22-3-23 Polish citizens join army b/o Russian invasion of Ukraine - BBC > .

22-3-1 Germany Re-Arming - F-35 Back? - mah > .

22-3-8 Russia’s Nightmare Comes True: Germany’s Military Is Back - Forces Tech > .

2022 Why 2022 could see the end of Macron’s European dream - Telegraph > .

NATO & US treaties post-WW2 - Vox > .

2021 True Goals of NATO? - Mad Mac > .

21-11-26 Poland to double the size of its military - Caspian > .

History of the European Union - mapped - GeHi > .

History of NATO: Every Year - mapped > .

US treaties post-WW2 - Vox > .

Does the EU Make War Impossible? - Time Ghost > .

2021 France = World's 5th Biggest Country - Real > .

22-1-10 Why Ukraine is Not a NATO Member - NATO > .

> EU >> 

>> EU >>> 

> EuM - European Defense >>  EU Army? 

24-7-27 Future of EU Defense: NATO or the EU? - Simple > .

24-3-6 EU Defense Union: How Far Should We Integrate? - Simple > . skip > .

24-2-28 EU Army Looks Increasingly Likely - TLDR > .

24-2-20 Why Europe is Reinstating Conscription - TLDR > .

23-12-23 Future of EU Defense: NATO or the EU? (ft. UEF) - Simple > .

22-5-1 EU Army could challenge Xina and Ruscia - Simple > .

> History of Poland >>

>> NATO >>>

> NATO Membership >>
> NATO Militaries >>

> NATO Politics >>

> Nordic Militaries >>

> Poland >>

24-3-14 German-Polish Tensions - Modern > .

24-2-7 Poland, After America || Peter Zeihan > .

> Poland Military >>

24-5-17 Poland Preparing for War - T&P > .

24-2-7 Poland, After America || Peter Zeihan > .

Poland & Hinterland - CoRo >> .

Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, Poland, NATO - Compass >> .

finēs - pro libertate >> .

Long Shadow & Impossible Peace → Global Conflicts - BePr >> .

European Union, Council, Treaties - BaPo >> .

EU 'R Bust - CoRo >> .

Estonian E-Residency - https://youtu.be/FXMb4iJITvs 

Estonian Online Voting - https://youtu.be/F5OvGTf4AV0

Geostrategic Projection

Black Sea - Operation Sea Breeze (NATO 2021) ..

EU 2023 ..

European Geostrategic Projection ..

Economic Recovery - Interbellum Germany

Beer Hall Putsch & Germany Rebuilds Rapidly after Losing WW1 - tah > .
skip ad > .

IMF - International Monetary Fund

.

How the IMF Works - IMF > .

23-1-16 Bretton Woods - Why it's Important - EEE > .

22-5-25 Was Dropping The Gold Standard A Mistake? - EcEx > .

2017 Difference between the IMF and the World Bank | CNBC > .

2017 What Does The World Bank Actually Do? - Now > .

2015 What Is The International Monetary Fund (IMF)? - Now > .

2016 The IMF Crisis of 1976 - Professor Vernon Bogdanor > .

2021 3 Steps to Post-Pandemic Prosperity | IMF Managing Director > .

Bretton Woods Solution Over | Daniel Schmachtenberger - GEOPOP > .

2019 (Bretton Woods, Gold Standard) New World Order - Caspian > .

Impact of Mounting Sovereign Debts - "Autodidact" - Goodfellows > .

2021 Which Countries Have The Biggest National Debt? - General Knowledge > .

2001-2021 Global Shift in Nation Debt as % of GDP - General Knowledge > .

22-10-27 Xina's Economy 60% Smaller Than Claimed - Macro > . skip > .

22-10-27 GDP Deflator - Macro > .

> Capitalism >>

> > Econopolitics > >

> Xitting the Wall - Xina's Economic Decline >>

Beyond Bretton Woods - Weaponi$ation - Weighs 'n Means >> .

Currencies - Way of the Triffin - Weighs 'n Means >> .

Currency Manipulation - Weighs 'n Means >> .
Printing Money - Central Banks, Fed - Weighs 'n Means >> .
War, Money, Civilization - Weighs 'n Means >> .

>> Weighs 'n Means >>

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution, headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 190 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world while periodically depending on the World Bank for its resources. 

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group. 

The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is traditionally an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other. Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. The intention behind the founding of the World Bank was to provide temporary loans to low-income countries that could not obtain loans commercially. The Bank may also make loans and demand policy reforms from recipients. The World Bank's most recently stated goal is the reduction of poverty.

The IMF was formed in 1944, started in 27 November 1945, at the Bretton Woods Conference primarily by the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it came into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international monetary system. It now plays a central role in the management of balance of payments difficulties and international financial crises. Countries contribute funds to a pool through a quota system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had XDR 477 billion (about US$667 billion).

Through the fund and other activities such as the gathering of statistics and analysis, surveillance of its members' economies, and the demand for particular policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries. The organization's objectives stated in the Articles of Agreement are: to promote international monetary co-operation, international trade, high employment, exchange-rate stability, sustainable economic growth, and making resources available to member countries in financial difficulty. IMF funds come from two major sources: quotas and loans. Quotas, which are pooled funds of member nations, generate most IMF funds. The size of a member's quota depends on its economic and financial importance in the world. Nations with greater economic significance have larger quotas. The quotas are increased periodically as a means of boosting the IMF's resources in the form of special drawing rights.

As an alternative to the current reserve currency system, some have proposed the use of the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) special drawing rights (SDRs) as a reserve. China has proposed using SDRs, calculated daily from a basket of U.S. dollar, euro, Japanese yen and British pounds, for international payments.

On 3 September 2009, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) issued a report calling for a new reserve currency based on the SDR, managed by a new global reserve bank. The IMF released a report in February 2011, stating that using SDRs "could help stabilize the global financial system."

The IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary and financial system and monitor the economic and financial policies of its member countries. This activity is known as surveillance and facilitates international co-operation. 

The IMF was originally laid out as a part of the Bretton Woods system exchange agreement in 1944. During the Great Depression, countries sharply raised barriers to trade in an attempt to improve their failing economies. This led to the devaluation of national currencies and a decline in world trade.

This breakdown in international monetary co-operation created a need for oversight. The representatives of 45 governments met at the Bretton Woods Conference in the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in the United States, to discuss a framework for postwar international economic co-operation and how to rebuild Europe.

There were two views on the role the IMF should assume as a global economic institution. American delegate Harry Dexter White foresaw an IMF that functioned more like a bank, making sure that borrowing states could repay their debts on time. Most of White's plan was incorporated into the final acts adopted at Bretton Woods. British economist John Maynard Keynes, on the other hand, imagined that the IMF would be a cooperative fund upon which member states could draw to maintain economic activity and employment through periodic crises. This view suggested an IMF that helped governments and to act as the United States government had during the New Deal to the great recession of the 1930s.

The IMF formally came into existence on 27 December 1945, when the first 29 countries ratified its Articles of Agreement. By the end of 1946 the IMF had grown to 39 members. On 1 March 1947, the IMF began its financial operations, and on 8 May France became the first country to borrow from it.

The IMF was one of the key organizations of the international economic system; its design allowed the system to balance the rebuilding of international capitalism with the maximisation of national economic sovereignty and human welfare, also known as embedded liberalism. The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The increase reflected in particular the attainment of political independence by many African countries and more recently the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union because most countries in the Soviet sphere of influence did not join the IMF.

The Bretton Woods exchange rate system prevailed until 1971, when the United States government suspended the convertibility of the US$ (and dollar reserves held by other governments) into gold. This is known as the Nixon Shock. The changes to the IMF articles of agreement reflecting these changes were ratified by the 1976 Jamaica Accords. 

Since the demise of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates in the early 1970s, surveillance has evolved largely by way of changes in procedures rather than through the adoption of new obligations. The responsibilities changed from those of guardian to those of overseer of members' policies.

Later in the 1970s, large commercial banks began lending to states because they were awash in cash deposited by oil exporters. The lending of the so-called money center banks led to the IMF's changing its role in the 1980s after a world recession provoked a crisis that brought the IMF back into global financial governance.

In late 2019, the IMF estimated global growth in 2020 to reach 3.4%, but due to the coronavirus, in November 2020, it expected the global economy to shrink by 4.4%.

In March 2020, Kristalina Georgieva announced that the IMF stood ready to mobilize $1 trillion as its response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was in addition to the $50 billion fund it had announced two weeks earlier, of which $5 billion had already been requested by Iran. One day earlier on 11 March, the UK called to pledge £150 billion to the IMF catastrophe relief fund. It came to light on 27 March that "more than 80 poor and middle-income countries" had sought a bailout due to the coronavirus.

On 13 April 2020, the IMF said that it "would provide immediate debt relief to 25 member countries under its Catastrophe Containment and Relief Trust (CCRT)" programme.

In November 2020, the Fund warned the economic recovery may be losing momentum as COVID-19 infections rise again and that more economic help would be needed.

The current Managing Director (MD) and Chairwoman of the IMF is Bulgarian economist Kristalina Georgieva, who has held the post since October 1, 2019. Gita Gopinath was appointed as Chief Economist of IMF from 1 October 2018. Prior to her appointment at the IMF, Gopinath served as the economic adviser to the Chief Minister of Kerala, India.

1920-1-19 ACLU foundation

.19th January 1920: Foundation of the American Civil Liberties Union - HiPo > .

In the aftermath of the First World War, fear of far-left extremism saw the United States enter a period of reactionary politics. Concerned that the increasingly powerful trade unions might attempt to replicate the Russian Revolution of 1917, and spurred on by fear of the anarchist bombings that were becoming more common, the Department of Justice under Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer began conducting raids against suspected leftists.

The Palmer Raids saw the arrest of around 3,000 people, a number of whom experienced unconstitutional and illegal actions against them that included entrapment, arrest without a warrant, and detention in often terrible conditions. In direct response to these violations a group of prominent individuals that included Roger Baldwin of the National Civil Liberties Bureau, Crystal Eastman, and Helen Keller created the American Civil Liberties Union with the expressed objective to ‘defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person by the Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution and laws of the United States’.

Formally established on 19 January 1920, the ACLU came to national prominence as a result of 1925’s ‘Monkey Trial’ in which it financed a legal challenge to Tennessee’s newly-signed Butler Act, which prohibited teachers in state-funded schools from teaching human evolution. Although the 24-year-old defendant, substitute science teacher John T. Scopes, lost the case it propelled the ACLU into the public eye. The organization now boasts more than 1.2 million members and continues to provide legal support where individual rights and liberties are threatened.