Saturday, June 14, 2014
1916-11-18 Somme Ends
.18th November 1916: Battle of the Somme ends with a German withdrawal - HiPo > .
On 18th November, 1916 The Battle of the Somme ended when German troops retired from the final large British attack at the battle of the Ancre, amid worsening weather.
By the end of the battle the Allies had advanced more than six miles into German-held territory. The Somme had offered the opportunity for them to refine their use of aircraft and had also introduced the tank for the first time.
Following the withdrawal of the German troops Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig called a halt to the operation, claiming the Somme offensive to have been successful. In his dispatch from the front, Haig stated that ‘Verdun had been relieved; the main German forces had been held on the Western front; and the enemy’s strength had been very considerably worn down.’ He went on to state that ‘any one of these three results is in itself sufficient to justify the Somme battle.’
The Somme offensive, and the enormous number of casualties that totalled more than a million men on both sides, has drawn fierce criticism ever since. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George wrote in his War Diaries that ‘over 400,000 of our men fell in this bullheaded fight and the slaughter amongst our young officers was appalling.’
German losses were also high, however, and some historians have since claimed that the battle left Germany unable to replace its casualties like-for-like, which contributed to their ultimate defeat through a war of attrition. However it was to be another two years before the war finally ended following Germany’s signing of the Armistice of Compiègne on 11 November 1918.
Following the withdrawal of the German troops Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig called a halt to the operation, claiming the Somme offensive to have been successful. In his dispatch from the front, Haig stated that ‘Verdun had been relieved; the main German forces had been held on the Western front; and the enemy’s strength had been very considerably worn down.’ He went on to state that ‘any one of these three results is in itself sufficient to justify the Somme battle.’
The Somme offensive, and the enormous number of casualties that totalled more than a million men on both sides, has drawn fierce criticism ever since. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George wrote in his War Diaries that ‘over 400,000 of our men fell in this bullheaded fight and the slaughter amongst our young officers was appalling.’
German losses were also high, however, and some historians have since claimed that the battle left Germany unable to replace its casualties like-for-like, which contributed to their ultimate defeat through a war of attrition. However it was to be another two years before the war finally ended following Germany’s signing of the Armistice of Compiègne on 11 November 1918.
1916-1-27 Conscription
1916-1-27: British Government's Military Service Act - WW1 Conscription - HiPo > .
On 27 January 1916 conscription was approved by the British Government when the Military Service Act was passed. The Act was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom during the First World War to impose conscription in Great Britain, but not in Ireland or any other country around the world.
The Bill which became the Act was introduced by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in January 1916. It received royal assent on 27 January, and came into force on 2 March 1916. Previously the British Government had relied on voluntary enlistment, and latterly a kind of moral conscription called the Derby Scheme.
When the First World War began in the summer of 1914, the British military relied on volunteers to join up and fight. The recruitment campaign, most famously promoted by Lord Kitchener’s "Your Country Needs You" poster had resulted in over one million men enlisting by January 1915. However, by 1916 the human cost of the war was mounting. Faced with staggering casualty figures and a significant decline in the number of volunteers, the military had insufficient soldiers to meet the escalating demands of the conflict.
In response, the government opted to increase numbers in the armed forces through compulsory enlistment, known as conscription. Introduced by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in January 1916, the Military Service Act deeply divided Parliament and even the ruling Liberal Party. It would make all single men and childless widowers between the ages of 18 and 41 liable to be called up, representing an unprecedented step by the state into the lives of the British public. 35 Liberal MPs voted against the bill while the Home Secretary, Sir John Simon, resigned his position.
Due to political considerations, the Military Service Act of 1916 applied only to male British subjects ordinarily resident in Great Britain. It never extended to those living in Ireland, which was then part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The Conscription Crisis of 1918 occurred when the British Government tried to impose conscription on Ireland. Sinn Féin was publicly perceived to be the key instigator of anti-conscription feeling, and on 17 May the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord French, claiming there was a treasonable plot between Sinn Féin and the Germans, ordered the arrest of 73 Sinn Féin leaders. The outcome was greater public support for Sinn Féin.
In response, the government opted to increase numbers in the armed forces through compulsory enlistment, known as conscription. Introduced by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in January 1916, the Military Service Act deeply divided Parliament and even the ruling Liberal Party. It would make all single men and childless widowers between the ages of 18 and 41 liable to be called up, representing an unprecedented step by the state into the lives of the British public. 35 Liberal MPs voted against the bill while the Home Secretary, Sir John Simon, resigned his position.
The conscription issue divided the Liberal Party including the Cabinet. Sir John Simon resigned as Home Secretary and attacked the government in his resignation speech in the House of Commons, where 35 Liberals voted against the bill, alongside 13 Labour MPs and 59 Irish Nationalists.
Nevertheless, Parliament overall acknowledged the need for prompt action and the Act was passed. It received royal assent on 27 January but was met with a protest demonstration of approximately 200,000 people in London’s Trafalgar Square, while by July almost 30% of those called up to fight had failed to appear. Nevertheless there was the possibility of exemption from service for those who were medically unfit alongside clergymen, teachers and certain classes of industrial worker. Only 2% of all exemption applications were for conscientious objectors who appealed on moral grounds.
The Act specified that men from 18 to 41 years old were liable to be called up for service in the army unless they were eligible for exemptions listed under this Act, including men who were married, widowed with children, serving in the Royal Navy, a minister of religion, or working in one of a number of reserved occupations, or for conscientious objection. A second Act in May 1916 extended liability for military service to married men, and a third Act in 1918 extended the upper age limit to 51.
Men or employers who objected to an individual's call-up could apply to a local Military Service Tribunal. These tribunals had powers to grant exemption from service, usually conditional or temporary, under the eligibility criteria which for the first time in history included conscientious objection. There was right of appeal to a County Appeal Tribunal, and finally to a Central Tribunal in Westminster in London.
Men or employers who objected to an individual's call-up could apply to a local Military Service Tribunal. These tribunals had powers to grant exemption from service, usually conditional or temporary, under the eligibility criteria which for the first time in history included conscientious objection. There was right of appeal to a County Appeal Tribunal, and finally to a Central Tribunal in Westminster in London.
The Conscription Crisis of 1918 occurred when the British Government tried to impose conscription on Ireland. Sinn Féin was publicly perceived to be the key instigator of anti-conscription feeling, and on 17 May the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord French, claiming there was a treasonable plot between Sinn Féin and the Germans, ordered the arrest of 73 Sinn Féin leaders. The outcome was greater public support for Sinn Féin.
Friday, June 13, 2014
1917-12-20 Cheka
.
1917-12-20: Establishment of the Cheka, the Russian Bolshevik secret police - HiPo > .24-5-25 Why We Cannot [Easily] Stop Dictators - Versed > .
24-5-14 Calder Walton's "Spies": Century-long East-West Espionage War - SiCu > .
Chekism ..
Established following a decree by Lenin on 19 December, the Cheka’s focus was on defending the revolution by removing internal threats to the communist regime. Lenin’s decree was purposefully vague, and this enabled the Cheka’s leader, Felix Dzerzhinsky, to recruit and direct his Chekist agents in whatever way he saw best. With virtually unlimited powers, the growing number of agents soon began rounding up anyone identified as an ‘enemy of the people’. Although often referred to as the Bolshevik secret police, the Chekists were easily identifiable from their long leather coats, and a number of their activities were reported in official Soviet newspapers Pravda and Izvestia.
The organisation’s name was derived from the Russian initials for its original full name – The All-Russian Emergency Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage. Hundreds of Cheka committees were formed across Russia, and these went on to arrest, torture or execute many thousands of dissidents, deserters and other enemies of the state.
Known as the Red Terror, the Cheka’s campaign of mass killings, torture, and systematic oppression grew more fierce as the Russian Civil War progressed. Its activities included a number of atrocities using torture methods that respected historian Orlando Figes says were ‘matched only by the Spanish Inquisition’.
Official Soviet figures placed the total number of Cheka victims at 12,733. However, in reality the figure is probably significantly higher. Some historians place the actual number of people killed by the Cheka at 200,000 or more.
The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (Всеросси́йская чрезвыча́йная коми́ссия, tr. Vserossíyskaya chrezvycháynaya komíssiya, abbreviated as VChK (Russian: ВЧК, and commonly known as Cheka (Russian: Чека, from the initialism ЧК, ChK), was the first of a succession of Soviet secret-police organizations. Established on December 5 (Old Style) 1917 by the Sovnarkom, it came under the leadership of Felix Dzerzhinsky, a Polish aristocrat-turned-Bolshevik. By late 1918, hundreds of Cheka committees had sprung up in the RSFSR at the oblast, guberniya, raion, uyezd, and volost levels.
Ostensibly set up to protect the revolution from reactionary forces, i.e., "class enemies" such as the bourgeoisie and members of the clergy, it soon became the repression tool against all political opponents of the communist regime. At the direction of Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, torture, and executions without trial.
In 1921, the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered at least 200,000. They policed labor camps, ran the Gulag system, conducted requisitions of food, put down rebellions and riots by workers and peasants, and mutinies in the Red Army.
The organization was dissolved in 1922 and succeeded by the State Political Directorate or GPU, which acted with similar aims but more restraint.
On the 20th of December 1917, the Russian Bolshevik secret police, known as the Cheka, was established.
The organisation’s name was derived from the Russian initials for its original full name – The All-Russian Emergency Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage. Hundreds of Cheka committees were formed across Russia, and these went on to arrest, torture or execute many thousands of dissidents, deserters and other enemies of the state.
Known as the Red Terror, the Cheka’s campaign of mass killings, torture, and systematic oppression grew more fierce as the Russian Civil War progressed. Its activities included a number of atrocities using torture methods that respected historian Orlando Figes says were ‘matched only by the Spanish Inquisition’.
Official Soviet figures placed the total number of Cheka victims at 12,733. However, in reality the figure is probably significantly higher. Some historians place the actual number of people killed by the Cheka at 200,000 or more.
Ostensibly set up to protect the revolution from reactionary forces, i.e., "class enemies" such as the bourgeoisie and members of the clergy, it soon became the repression tool against all political opponents of the communist regime. At the direction of Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, torture, and executions without trial.
In 1921, the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered at least 200,000. They policed labor camps, ran the Gulag system, conducted requisitions of food, put down rebellions and riots by workers and peasants, and mutinies in the Red Army.
The organization was dissolved in 1922 and succeeded by the State Political Directorate or GPU, which acted with similar aims but more restraint.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
sī vīs pācem, parā bellum
igitur quī dēsīderat pācem praeparet bellum therefore, he who desires peace, let him prepare for war sī vīs pācem, parā bellum if you wan...
