A group of biologists gave Popper his first scientific hearing. They met as the Theoretical Biology Club in the 1930s and ’40s, at the University of Oxford, at house parties in Surrey, and latterly in London too.
In the early 1930s
Joseph Henry Woodger and
Joseph Needham, together with
Conrad Hal Waddington,
John Desmond Bernal, Dorothy Needham, and
Dorothy Wrinch, formed the Theoretical Biology Club, to promote the
organicist approach to
biology. The club was in opposition to
mechanism,
reductionism and the
gene-centric view of evolution. Most of the members were influenced by the philosophy of
Alfred North Whitehead.
Organicism is the [discredited]
philosophical position which states that the
universe and its various parts—including
human societies—
ought to be considered alive and naturally ordered, much like a living organism.
Vital to the position is the idea that organicistic elements are not dormant "things" per se but rather dynamic components in a comprehensive system that is, as a whole, ever-changing. Organicism is related to, although remains distinct from,
holism insofar as organicism prefigures holism; and the latter concept is applied within a broader scope to universal part-whole interconnections—such as anthropology and sociology—whereas the former is traditionally confined to philosophical and biological applications. Further, organicism is incongruous with
reductionism, as well; for its (i.e. organicism's) consideration of "both bottom-up and top-down causation." Regarded as a fundamental tenet in
natural philosophy, organicism has remained a vital current in modern thought, alongside both
reductionism and
mechanism, that has guided scientific inquiry since the
early 17th century.
Though there remains dissent among scientific historians concerning organicism's pregeneration, most scholars agree on
Ancient Athens as its birthplace. Because, surfacing in Athenian writing in the 4th-century B.C.E.,
Plato was among the first philosophers to
consider the universe an intelligent living (almost sentient) being, which he first posits in his
Socratic dialogue,
Philebus, and further expands upon in the later works of
Republic and
Theatetus. At the turn of the
18th-century,
Immanuel Kant championed a revival of organicisitic thought by stressing, in his written works, "the inter-relatedness of the organism and its parts[,] and the circular causality" inherent to the inextricable entanglement of the greater whole.
Organicism flourished for a period during the
German Romanticism intellectual movement, where the position was considered by
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling to be an important principle in the burgeoning
field of biological studies. Within contemporary biology, organicism stresses the organization (particularly the
self-organizing properties) rather than the composition (i.e. the reduction into biological components) of
organisms.
John Scott Haldane was the first modern biologist to use the term to expand his philosophical stance in 1917; other 20th-century academics and professionals—such as
Theodor Adorno and Albert Dalcq—have followed in Haldane's wake.
French zoologist
Yves Delage, in his seminal text
L'Hérédité Et Les Grands Problèmes de la Biologie Générale, describes organicism thus:
[L]ife, the form of the body, the properties and characters of its diverse parts, as resulting from the reciprocal play or struggle of all its elements, cells, fibres, tissues, organs, which act the one on the other, modify one the other, allot among them each its place and part, and lead all together to the final result, giving thus the appearance of a consensus, or a pre-established harmony, where in reality there is nothing but the result of independent phenomena.
The Theoretical Biology Club disbanded as the Rockefeller Foundation refused to fund their investigations.
Popper visited them both before and after the war, as they wrestled with evolutionary theory and with establishing connections between their different biological specialisms. During the prewar period in particular, evolutionary biology was – depending on one’s outlook – either excitingly complex or confusingly jumbled. Neat theories of Mendelian evolution, where discrete characteristics were inherited on the toss of a chromosomal coin, competed to explain evolution with arcane statistical descriptions of genetic qualities, continuously graded across populations. Meanwhile the club’s leading light, Joseph Henry Woodger, hoped for a philosophically tight way of clarifying the notoriously flaky biological concept of ‘organicism’. Perhaps Popper’s clarifying rigour could help to sort it all out.
Among the eager philosophical scientists of the Theoretical Biology Club was a young man named
Peter Medawar. Shortly after the Second World War, Medawar was drafted into a lab researching tissue transplantation, where he began a Nobel-winning career in the biological sciences. In his several books for popular audiences, and in his BBC Reith lectures of 1959, he consistently credited Popper for the success of science, becoming the most prominent Popperian of all. (In turn, Richard Dawkins credited Medawar as ‘chief spokesman for “The Scientist” in the modern world’, and has spoken positively of falsifiability.) In Medawar’s radio lectures, Popper’s trademark ‘commonsense’ philosophy was very much on display, and he explained with great clarity how even hypotheses about the genetic future of mankind could be tested experimentally along Popperian lines. In 1976, Medawar secured Popper his most prestigious recognition yet: a fellowship, rare among non-scientists, at the scientific Royal Society of London.
While all this was going on, three philosophers were
pulling the rug away beneath the Popperians’ feet. They
argued that,
when an experiment fails to prove a hypothesis, any element of the physical or theoretical set-up could be to blame. Nor can any single disproof ever count against a theory, since we can always put in a good-faith auxiliary hypothesis to protect it: perhaps the lab mice weren’t sufficiently inbred to produce genetic consistency; perhaps the chemical reaction occurs only in the presence of a particular catalyst. Moreover, we have to protect some theories for the sake of getting on at all. Generally, we don’t conclude that we have disproved well-established laws of physics – rather, that our experiment was faulty. And yet
the Popperians ['proof positive' of Popper's original contention that scientists ought to abandon falsified theories] were undaunted.
"Plato: Organicism".
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
